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OLD ENGLISH POETRY 



OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

TRANSLATIONS INTO ALLITERATIVE VERSE 

WITH 

INTRODUCTIONS AND NOTES 



J. DUNCAN SPAETH 

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH IN PRINCETON UNIVERSITY 



PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS 
PRINCETON 

LONDON : HUMPHREY MILFORD 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 

1923 



^^ 



,6 0^- 



Copyright 1921 
Princeton University Press 



Published 1921 

Second Printing, March, 1922 

Printed in the United States of America 



m 10 1922 

©CI.A674535 




G? 



PREFACE 

In this book of Old English poetry an effort has been 
made to bring together and reproduce in modern English 
alliterative verse, the best and most representative por- 
tions of the considerable body of extant poetry produced 
in England between the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasion 
and the Norman conquest. The classification of this 
poetry into the main types of Epic, Lyric, Gnomic and 
Historic Poetry, while necessarily formal, does no real 
violence to the principle of historic continuity. Widsith 
and Beowulf belong to the earlier period, Brimnanburg 
and Maldon to the later, and to this extent the arrange- 
ment is chronological as well as topical. The conditions 
under which this early poetry was produced and trans- 
mitted render exact dating extremely difficult or impos- 
sible and in view of the comparative fixity of form 
throughout the whole period, the division according to 
genre is not only the most convenient but the most natural. 
While designed chiefly for use in College and High- 
School in connection with survey courses in English lit- 
erature, it is hoped that the general reader and student of 
English literature and history may find more than mere 
text-book matter in the volume. The brief general intro- 
ductions to the various types, Heroic Epic, Biblical Epic, 
Saints' Legends, etc., if read through consecutively, will 
give a fair survey of the field of Old English poetry, and 
the selected bibliography will orient the student who 
wishes to pursue further his reading in this field. 

In the epic and narrative divisions, complete poems or 



vi PREFACE 

pieces of narrative have so far as possible been given. In 
the Beowulf, the first 2000 lines are practically complete 
with only the omission of the episodes; and the last ad- 
venture is also practically complete. Of the 3182 lines 
of the Beowulf Ms. our translation gives 2125, just two- 
thirds of the whole. Where, as in Elene and Guthlac, 
larger portions have been omitted, the danger is not that 
the selection will appear fragmentary, but rather that an 
effect of greater unity will be produced than is present in 
the original. Throughout the book the line-numbers in 
parentheses on the right hand margin indicate the line- 
numbers of the original. Where lines or passages have 
been omitted, the omission is indicated by the marginal 
line-numbers, which will facilitate comparison with the 
Old English text for those who care to make it. In gen- 
eral, the translation follows the original line by line, but 
in Guthlac, the Phoenix, and some of the lyrics there has 
been more fusion than in Beowulf and the historic nar- 
ratives. 

As a translator of poetry I have kept in mind Rossetti's 
canon of translation: "The life-blood of rhythmical 
translation is this commandment that a good poem shall 
not be turned into a bad one. The only true motive for 
putting poetry into fresh language must be to endow a 
fresh nation as far as possible with one more possession 
of beauty. Poetry not being an exact science, literality 
of rendering is altogether secondary to this chief law. 
I say literality, not fidelity, which is not the same thing." 
A faithful translation must be faithful to the language 
into which the translation is made, as well as to the one 
out of which it is made. Theodore Roosevelt once said 
of a translation of Beowulf: "This poem has undoubtedly 



PREFACE vii 

been translated out of Anglo-Saxon, but it has undoubt- 
edly not been translated into English." Wherever faith- 
fulness to the spirit of a line or passage has seemed to 
come into conflict with faithfulness to the letter, a literal 
translation, and in some cases the Old English passage, 
has been given in the notes, and the general reader is in 
this way provided with a check on the translator that 
the scholar possesses by his reference to the original 
Old English text. 

In the preface to the volume of Early English Poems 
(1910) in which many of these translations first ap- 
peared, the writer said : *'These renderings represent at 
least an attempt to make English poetry out of Anglo- 
Saxon poetry. Many of them were made years ago for 
use in the class-room with my students. Like the poems 
they aim to reproduce, they led a mouth-to-ear existence 
long before they were elevated to the dignity of 'letters.' 
Even now the translator would wish to have them judged 
chiefly by their effect when read aloud. The older the 
poetry, the more vocal it is. Versions of Old English 
poetry that fail to make their appeal through the living 
rhythm of the living voice, fail not only in an essential 
of all poetry but in a quintessential of Anglo-Saxon 
poetry." In the special note on the Old English Alliter- 
ative Metre, I have discussed the principles followed in 
rendering the Germanic alliterative verse in modern Eng- 
lish. 

My obligations to the scholars whose labors have 
made possible the interpretation of Old English life and 
literature to the modern mind, have been acknowledged 
in the notes wherever I was conscious of them. The best 
payment in this kind is faithful use. So far as possible 
within the special scope of this little book, I have tried 



Vlll 



PREFACE 



to bring to bear on the body of Old English poetry here 
presented, the best results both of older and of contempo- 
rary scholarship. For the translator and interpreter of 
Old English poetry, Grein's Sprach-schatz is still an in- 
dispensable and inexhaustible treasury. It is not only a 
dictionary, but a concordance of Old English Poetry, 
and when used together with the Grein-Wuelker Biblio- 
thek, it unlocks the meaning of many an obscure passage. 
Wherever special editions of Old English poems were 
available, they have been used. Among the editions to 
which the renderings are especially indebted, are the ad- 
mirable revision of the Wyatt edition of Beowulf by 
R. W. Chambers (1914), every page of which throws 
light upon the text,^ the scholarly editions of Crist and the 
Dream of the Rood by Professor Cook, and the excellent 
edition of the Riddles by Professor Tupper. Where I 
have been conscious of dependence on previous transla- 
tors for words, phrases, or lines not directly suggested by 
the original, I have indicated the fact in the notes, gen- 
erally with a reference to the Old English. The select 
bibliography and the many references in the notes will 
indicate the sources on which I have chiefly drawn for 
the matter in introduction and notes. 

My thanks are due to Henry Holt and Co. for per- 
mitting the use of the translations and notes that had 
previously appeared in Early English Poems (Henry 
Holt and Co., N. Y., 1910), and to my colleagues in the 
English Department at Princeton, without whose en- 
couragement this volume would not have been under- 
taken. 

We need not fall into what Matthew Arnold called the 

1 Prof. Chambers' Introduction to Beowulf 1921 did not come to 
hand until after my Beowulf translation and notes had gone through 
the press. 



PREFACE ix 

fallacy of the historic estimate, in judging of the value 
and interest of these beginnings of English poetry for 
the student and lover of English literature. The signifi- 
cance of that literature lies in the fact that more com- 
pletely than any of the national literatures produced by 
Western Civilization it has, like the language that is its 
form, achieved a union of the Northern, Germanic, and 
the Greco-Latin, Classic spirit. 

In its beginnings, in the Epic poetry of the Heroic 
Age, v^e v^itness the response of the Northern Spirit, as 
embodied in the Germanic tribes that settled England, to 
the challenge of life, scarcely touched by the spirit of 
older civilizations. The conversion of the Old English 
to Christianity first brought them into the main stream 
of the cultural inheritance of the West. In the Christian 
literature of the Anglo-Saxons we witness the beginnings 
of that capacity for absorption and assimilation of for- 
eign cultural influences without loss of native bent and 
vigor, which has been characteristic of the later and 
greater periods of English literature. The increasing re- 
sponsibility thrown upon the peoples who are the inheri- 
tors of this great tradition in the task of saving and per- 
petuating a civilization whose final worth will not be 
estimated in political, economic, industrial, or commer- 
cial achievement, but in the contribution of ideal values 
it has made to the progress of the human race, renders 
it especially fitting that in these days we reinforce our 
consciousness of a common destiny by turning back to 
our common origins and remembering afresh the rock 
whence we were hewn, and the hole of the pit whence 
we were digged. 

J. D. S. 
Princeton, September 1921. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

I. Epic Poetry i 

1. Heroic Epic i 

*" Beowulf I 

The Life of the Gleeman (From Wid- 

sith) 76 

2. Biblical Epic 78 

The Fall of Man (Younger Genesis) ... 78 
The Drowning of the Egyptians (From 

Exodus) 92 

3. Saints' Legends 95 

v::1ei^^^ 95 

Saint Guthlac 107 

IL Lyric Poetry 118 

1. Religious Lyric 1 18 

Caedmon 118 

Northumbrian Hymn 118 

Cynewulf (From the Crist) 119 

Hymn of Praise 119 

Voyage of Life 120 

Doomsday 121 

^ Vision of the Cross 123 

The Phoenix 128 

2. Secular Lyric and Elegy 140 

^K_The Wanderer..., 140 

_^^The Seafarer 144 

The Husband's Message 147 

xi 



xii CONTENTS 

III. Charms, Riddles AND Gnomic Poetry 149 

1. Charms 149 

^ ^ The Ploughman's Charm 149 

Charm for a Sudden Stitch 150 

2. Riddles 151 

^Book-worm 151 

Gnats 152 

Shield 152 

Barnacle 152 

Honey-mead 153 

Anchor 154 

Plough 154 

Swan 155 

3. Gnomic Verses 155 

From the Cotton Ms 155 

From the Exeter Book 157 

The Fates of Men 159 

IV. Historic War Poetry 162 

Battle of Brunnanburg 162 

Battle of Maldon 164 

Notes 175 



I. Epic Poetry 

1. HEROIC EPIC 

BEOWULF 

The Myth of the Sheaf-Child 

List to an old-time lay of the Spear-Danes, 
Full of the prowess of famous kings, 
Deeds of renown that were done by the heroes; 
Scyld the Sheaf-Child from scourging foemen, 
5 From raiders a-many their mead-halls wrested. 
He lived to be feared, though first as a waif. 
Puny and frail he was found on the shore. 
He grew to be great, and was girt with power 
Till the border-tribes all obeyed his rule, 

10 And sea-folk hardy that sit by the whale-path 
Gave him tribute, a good king was he. 
Many years after, an heir was born to him, 
A goodly youth, whom God had sent 
To stay and support his people in need. 

15 (Long time leaderless living in woe. 

The sorrow they suffered He saw full well.) 
The Lord of Glory did lend him honor, 
Beowulf's fame afar was borne, 
Son of old Scyld in the Scandian lands. 

20 A youthful heir must be open-handed. 

Furnish the friends of his father with plenty, 
That thus in his age, in the hour of battle, 



2 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Willing comrades may crowd around him (^j) 

Eager and true. In every tribe 
Honorable deeds shall adorn an earl. 
The aged Scyld, when his hour had come, 
5 Famous and praised, departed to God. 
His faithful comrades carried him down 
To the brink of the sea, as himself had bidden. 
The Scyldings' friend, before he fell silent, 
Their lord beloved who long had ruled them. 

lo Out in the bay a boat was waiting 

Coated with ice, 'twas the king's own barge. 
They lifted aboard their bracelet-bestower, 
And down on the deck their dear lord laid, 
Hard by the mast. Heaped-up treasure 

15 Gathered from far they gave him along. 
Never was ship more nobly laden 
With wondrous weapons and warlike gear. 
Swords and corslets covered his breast 
v^Floating riches to ride afar with him 

20 Out o'er the waves at the will of the sea. 

No less they dowered their lord with treasure, 
Things of price, than those who at first 
Had launched him forth as a little child 
/Alone on the deep to drift o'er the billows. 

25 They gave him to boot a gilded banner, 
High o'er his head they hung it aloft. 
Then set him adrift, let the surges bear him. 
Sad were their hearts, their spirits mournful ; 
Man hath not heard, no mortal can say 

30 Who found that barge's floating burden. 



BEOWULF 



The Line of the Danish Kings and the Building 
OF Heorot 

Now Beowulf was king in the burgs of the Scyldings, 
Famed among folk. (His father had left (5^) 

The land of the living). From his loins was sprung 
Heal f dene the royal, who ruled to old age, 
5 Gray and battlegrim, the bold-hearted Scyldings. 
Children four to this chief of the people 1^ 

Woke unto life, one after another; 
Heorogar and Hrothgar, and Halga the brave, 
And winsome Sigeneow, a Scylfing she wedded; 

10 Saewela's queen they say she became. 

To Hrothgar was given such glory in battle, ^ 

Such fame he won, that his faithful band 

Of youthful warriors waxed amain. 

So great had grown his guard of kinsmen, 

15 That it came in his mind to call on his people 
To build a mead-hall, mightier far 
Than any e'er seen by the sons of men. 
Wherein to bestow upon old and young. 
Gifts and rewards, as God vouchsafed them, 

20 Save folk-share lands and freemen's lives. 
Far and wide the work was published; 
Many a tribe, the mid-earth round. 
Helped to fashion the folk-stead fair. 
With speed they built it, and soon 'twas finished, 

25 Greatest of halls. Heorot he named it, 
Whose word was law o'er lands afar; 
Nor failed in his promise, but freely dealt 
Gifts at the feast. The fair hall towered 



4 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Wide-gabled and high, awaiting its doom, (82) 

The sweep of fire; not far was the time 
That ancient feuds should open afresh. 
And sword-hate sunder sons from fathers. 

5 In the darkness dwelt a demon-sprite, 
Whose heart was filled with fury and hate, 
When he heard each night the noise of revel 
Loud in the hall, laughter and song. 
To the sound of the harp the singer chanted 

10 Lays he had learned, of long ago; 
How the Almighty had made the earth, 
Wonder-bright lands, washed by the ocean; 
How he set triumphant, sun and moon 
To lighten all men that live on the earth. 

15 He brightened the land with leaves and branches; 
Life he created for every being. 
Each in its kind, that moves upon earth. 
So, happy in hall, the heroes lived, 
Wanting naught, till one began 

20 To work them woe, a wicked fiend. 
The demon grim was Grendel called, 
March-stalker huge, the moors he roamed. 
The joyless creature had kept long time 
The lonely fen, the lairs of monsters, 

25 Cast out from men, an exile accurst. 
The killing of Abel, on offspring of Cain 
Was justly avenged by the Judge Eternal. 
Nought gained by the feud the faithless murderer; 
He was banished unblest from abode of men. 

30 And hence arose the host of miscreants, 
Monsters and elves and eldritch sprites, 



BEOWULF 5 

Warlocks and giants, that warred against God; {113) 
Jotuns and goblins; He gave them their due. 



II 

The Ravaging of Heorot Hall by the Monster 
Grendel 

When night, had fallen, the fiend crept near 
To the lofty hall, to learn how the Danes 
5 In Heorot fared, when the feasting was done. 
The aethelings all within he saw 
Asleep after revel, not recking of danger, 
And free from care. The fiend accurst. 
Grim and greedy, his grip made ready ; 

10 Snatched in their sleep, with savage fury. 
Thirty warriors; away he sprang 
Proud of his prey, to repair to his home. 
His blood-dripping booty to bring to his lair. 
At early dawn, when day-break came, 

15 The vengeance of Grendel was revealed to all; 
Their wails after wassail were widely heard. 
Their morning-woe. The mighty ruler, 
The aetheling brave, sat bowed with grief. 
The fate of his followers filled him with sorrow, 

20 When they traced the tracks of the treacherous foe, 
Fiend accurst. Too fierce was that onset, 
Too loathsome and long, nor left them respite. 
The very next night, anew he began 
To maim and to murder, nor was minded to slacken 

25 His fury of hate, too hardened in crime. 
Twas easy to find then earls who preferred 



6 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

A room elsewhere, for rest at night, (-fJP) 

A bed in the bowers, when they brought this news 
Of the hall-foe's hate; and henceforth all 
Who escaped the demon, kept distance safe. 

5 So Grendel wrongfully ruled the hall, 
One against all till empty stood 
That lordly mansion, and long remained so. 
For the space of twelve winters the Scyldings' Friend 
Bore in his breast the brunt of this sorrow, 

10 Measureless woe. In mournful lays 

The tale became known; 'twas told abroad 
In gleemen's songs, how Grendel had warred 
Long against Hrothgar, and wreaked his hate 
With murderous fury through many a year, 

15 Refusing to end the feud perpetual, 

Or decently deal with the Danes in parley. 

Take their tribute for treaty of peace; 

Nor could their leaders look to receive 

Pay from his hands for the harm that he wrought. 

20 The fell destroyer kept feeding his rage 
On young and old. So all night long 
He prowled o'er the fen and surprised his victims, 
Death-shadow dark. (The dusky realms 
Where the hell-runes haunt are hidden from men.) 

25 So the exiled roamer his raids continued; 
Wrong upon wrong in his wrath he heaped. 
In midnights dark he dwelt alone 
'Mongst Heorot's trophies and treasures rich. 
Great was the grief of the gold-friend of Scyldings, 

30 Vexed was his mood that he might not visit 
His goodly throne, his gift-seat proud. 



BEOWULF 7 

Deprived of joy by the judgment of God (i6p) 
Many the wise men that met to discover 
Ways of escape from the scourge of affliction. 
Often they came for counsel together; 
5 Often at heathen ahars they made 

Sacrifice-offerings, beseeching their idols 
To send them deliverance from assault of the foe. 
Such was their practice, they prayed to the Devil ; 
The hope of the heathen on hell was fixed, 

lo The mood of their mind. Their Maker they knew 
not. 
The righteous Judge and Ruler on high. 
The Wielder of Glory they worshipped not. 
The Warden of Heaven. Woe be to him 
Whose soul is doomed through spite and envy, 

15 In utter despair and agony hopeless 
Forever to burn. But blessed is he 
Who, after this life, the Lord shall seek. 
Eager for peace in the arms of the Father. 



Ill 

The Voyage of Beowulf to the Hall of Hrothgar 

Thus boiled with care the breast of Hrothgar; (i8p) 
20 Ceaselessly sorrowed the son of Healfdene, 

None of his chieftains might change his lot. 

Too fell was the foe that afflicted the people 

With wrongs unnumbered, and nightly horrors. 

Then heard in his home king Hygelac's thane, 
25 The dauntless Jute, of the doings of Grendel. 

In strength he outstripped the strongest of men 



8 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

That dwell in the earth in the days of this life. 
Gallant and bold, he gave command (ip8) 
To get him a boat, a good wave-skimmer. 
O'er the swan-road, he said, he would seek the king 
5 Noble and famous, who needed men. 

Though dear to his kin, they discouraged him not ; 
The prudent in counsel praised the adventure, 
Whetted his valor, awaiting good omens. 

So Beowulf chose from the band of the Jutes 

lo Heroes brave, the best he could find; 
He with fourteen followers hardy, 
Went to embark; he was wise in seamanship, 
Showed them the landmarks, leading the way. 
Soon they descried their craft in the water, 

15 At the foot of the cliflf. Then climbed aboard 
The chosen troop; the tide was churning 
Sea against sand ; they stowed away 
In the hold of the ship their shining armor, 
War-gear and weapons ; the warriors launched 

20 Their well-braced boat on her welcome voyage. 

Swift o'er the waves with a wind that favored, 
Foam on her breast, like a bird she flew. 
A day and a night they drove to seaward, 
Cut the waves with the curving prow, 
25 Till the seamen that sailed her sighted the land, 
Shining cliffs and coast-wise hills. 
Headlands bold. The harbor opened, 
Their cruise was ended. Then quickly the sailors, 
The crew of Weder-folk clambered ashore, 



BEOWULF 9 

Moored their craft with clank of chain-mail, {226) 

And goodly war-gear. God they thanked 

That their way was smooth o'er the surging waves. 

High on the shore, the Scylding coast-guard 
5 Saw from the cliff where he kept his watch. 
Glittering shields o'er the gunwale carried, 
Polished weapons. It puzzled him sore, 
He wondered in mind who the men might be. 
Down to the strand on his steed came riding 

10 Hrothgar's thane, with threatening arm 

Shook his war-spear and shouted this challenge: 
"Who are ye, men, all mailed and harnessed. 
That brought yon ship o'er the broad sea-ways. 
And hither have come across the water, 

15 To land on our shores? Long have I stood 
As coast-guard here, and kept my sea-watch. 
Lest harrying foe with hostile fleet 
Should dare to damage our Danish land. 

A Armed men never from overseas came 

20 More openly hither. But how do ye know 
That law of the land doth give ye leave 
To come thus near. I never have seen 
Statelier earl upon earth than him, — 
1 Yon hero in harness. No house-carl he, 

25 In lordly array, if looks speak true. 

And noble bearing. But now I must learn 
Your names and country, ere nearer ye come, 
Underhand spies, for aught I know. 
In Danish land. Now listen ye strangers, 

30 In from the sea, to my open challenge : 
Heed ye my words and haste me to know 
What your errand and whence ye have come." 



10 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

IV 

Beowulf's Words With the Coast-Guard 

Him the hero hailed with an answer, {^5^) 

The war-troop's leader, his word-hoard unlocked : 
/Tn truth we belong to the tribe of the Jutes; 
We are Hygelac's own hearth-companions. 
5 Far among folk my father was known, 
A noble chieftain ; his name was Ecgtheow 
Honored by all, he ended his days 
Full of winters and famed in the land. 
Wise men everywhere well remember him. 

lo Hither we fare with friendly purpose 
To seek thy lord, the son of Healfdene, 
The land-protector. Instruct us kindly. 
Bound on adventure we visit thy lord. 
The prince of the Danes. Our purpose is open ; 

1 5 Nought keep we secret ; thou surely wilt know 
If the tale we were told is true or not: 
That among the Scyldings a monster strange 
A nameless demon, when nights are dark, 
With cruel cunning, for cause unknown, 

20 Works havoc and slaughter. I have in mind 
A way to help your wise king Hrothgar, 
Your ruler to rid of the ravening foe. 
If ever his tide of troubles shall turn. 
The billows of care that boil in his breast 

25 Shall cool and subside, and his sorrow be cured; 
Else, faihng my purpose, forever hereafter 
He shall suffer distress, while stands on its hill. 
Mounting on high, his matchless hall." 
Straight answered the coast-guard, astride his horse, 

30 The warrior brave : "Twixt words and deeds 
A keen-witted thane, if he thinks aright, 



BEOWULF II 

Must well distinguish and weigh the difference. (28p) 
Your words I believe, that you wish no evil 
To the Scylding lord. I will let you bring 
Your shields ashore and show you the way. 
5 My comrades here shall keep the watch, 
From meddling foe defend your craft. 
Your fresh-tarred boat, fast by the beach, 
And faithfully guard her till again she bear 
With curving bow, o'er the bounding main, 

10 Her master well-loved to the Wedermark. 
Fortune oft favors the fighter who yields not; 
. Hero unflinching comes unhurt from the fray." 
■Landward they hastened, leaving behind them 
Fast at her moorings the full-bosomed boat, 

15 The ship at anchor. Shone the boar-heads 

Gleaming with gold, o'er the guards of their helmets; 
Bright and fire-forged the beast kept watch. 
Forward they pressed, proud and adventurous, 
Fit for the fight, till afar they descried 

20 The high-peaked radiant roof of the hall. 

Of houses far-praised 'neath heaven by the people 
That inhabit the earth, this house was most famous, 
The seat of king Hrothgar; its splendor gleamed 

bright 
O'er many a land. Their leader well-armed 

25 Showed them the shining shield-burg of heroes. 
And set them right on the road to their goal. 
Then, wheeling his steed, he wished them farewell : 

'* 'Tis time that I leave you; the Lord of Heaven, 
The Father Almighty in mercy keep you 
30 Safe on your journey; seaward I turn, 
Watch to keep and ward against foe." 



12 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 



Beowulf's Arrival at the Hall and the Manner 
OF His Reception 

The street was stone-paved; straight it led (3^o) 
To the goal of their journey. Glistened their byrnies 
Stout and strong-linked; sang the rings 
Of their iron mail as they marched along, 
5 In armor and helmet right up to the hall. 
Sea-voyage-sated, they set their shields. 
Their linden-woods broad, along the wall. 
As they bent to the bench, their byrnies clattered. 
They stacked their spears that stood in a row, 

lo Ash wood tipped with iron above; 
Well-equipped was the warlike band. 
A stately Dane the strangers addressed. 
Asked who they were and whence they had come : 
"Whence do ye bear your burnished shields, 

15 Your visored helmets and harness gray 

Your heap of spear-shafts? A servant of Hrothgar's 

His herald, am I. Hardier strangers. 

Nobler in mien, have I never seen. 

'Tis clear you come to the court of Hrothgar, 

20 Not outlaws and beggars, but bent on adventure." 
To him gave answer the hero brave, 
The lord of the Weders these words returned, 
Bold 'neath his helmet: "We are Hygelac's men. 
His board-companions. I am Beowulf called. 

25 Ready am I the ruler to answer, 



BEOWULF 13 

To say to thy lord, the son of Healfdene, (345) 

Why we have come his court to seek, 
If he will graciously grant us a hearing." 
Wulfgar replied (he was prince of the Wendles, 
5 His noble renown was known to many. 
His courage in war, and wisdom in counsel) : 
'1 will carry thy quest to the king of the Danes, 
And ask him whether he wishes to grant 
The boon thou dost ask of the breaker-of -rings, 

10 To speak to himself concerning thy journey; 

And straight will I bring thee the answer he sends." 
Swiftly he hied him where Hrothgar sat. 
White-haired and old, his earls around him. 
Stately he strode, till he stood in the presence 

15 Of the king of the Danes, — in courtly ways 
Was Wulfgar skilled; he spoke to his lord: 
''Hither have fared from a far country, 
A band of Jutes o'er the bounding sea. 
Their leader and chief by his chosen comrades 

20 Is Beowulf called; this boon they ask: 
That they may find with thee, my lord, 
Favor of speech; refuse them not. 
But grant them, Hrothgar, gracious hearing. 
In armor clad, they claim respect 

25 Of choicest earls; but chiefly their lord 
Who lately hither hath led his comrades." 

VI 

Hrothgar's Welcome to Beowulf 

Hrothgar spoke, the Scyldings' protector : 
''Beowulf I knew in his boyhood days; 
His aged father was Ecgtheow named. 



14 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

To him, to take home, did Hrethel give (3/4) 
His only daughter. Their dauntless son 
Now comes to my court in quest of a friend. 
My sea-faring men whom I sent afar 
5 To the land of the Jutes, with generous gifts. 
In token of friendship, have told me this. 
That the power of his grip was so great it equalled 
The strength of thirty stout-armed thanes. 
Him bold in battle, the blessed God 
10 Hath sent in his mercy, to save our people 

— So I hope in my heart — from the horror of Grendel. 1 ^ 
I shall offer him gold for his gallant spirit. 
Go now in haste, and greet the strangers ; 
Bid to the hall the whole of the company; 

1 5 Welcome with words the warrior band, 

To the home of the Danes." To the hall door went 

Wulfgar the courtly, and called them in : 

"My master commands me this message to give you. 

The lord of the Danes your lineage knows; 
20 Bids me to welcome you, brave-hearted warriors. 

Bound on adventure o'er the billowy main. 

Ye may rise now and enter, arrayed in your armor, 

Covered with helmets, the king to greet. 

But leave your shields, and your shafts of slaugnter, 
25 Here by the wall to await the issue." 

Then rose the leader, around him his comrades. 

Sturdy war-band; some waited without. 

Bid by the bold one their batde-gear to guard. 

Together they hastened where the herald led them, 
30 Under Heorot's roof. The hero went first. 



BEOWULF 15 

Strode under helmet, till he stood by the hearth. {404) 
Beowulf spoke, his bymie glistened, 
His corslet chain-linked by cunning of smithcraft : 
''Hail, king Hrothgar ! Hygelac's thane 
5 And kinsman am I. Known is the record 
Of deeds of renown I have done in my youth. 
Far in my home, I heard of this Grendel; 
Sea-farers tell the tale of the hall: 
How bare of warriors, this best of buildings 

10 Deserted stands, when the sun goes down 
And twilight deepens to dark in the sky. 
By comrades encouraged, I come on this journey. 
The best of them bade me, the bravest and wisest, 
To go to thy succor, O good king Hrothgar ; 

15 For well they approved my prowess in battle, 

They saw me themselves come safe from the conflict 
When five of my foes I defeated and bound. 
Beating in battle the brood of the monsters. 
At night on the sea with nicors I wrestled, 

20 Avenging the Weders, survived the sea-peril. 
And crushed in my grip the grim sea-monsters 
That harried my neighbors. Now I am come 
To cope with Grendel in combat single, 
And match my might against the monster, alone. 

25 I pray thee therefore, prince of the Scyldings, 
Not to refuse the favor I ask. 
Having come so far, O friend of the Shield-Danes, 
That I alone with my loyal comrades, 
My hardy companions, may Heorot purge. 

30 Moreover they say that the slaughterous fiend 
In wanton mood all weapons despises. 
Hence, — as I hope that Hygelac may, 



1 6 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

My lord and king, be kind to me, — (43^) 

Sword and buckler I scorn to bear, 
Gold-adorned shield, as I go to the conflict. 
With my grip will I grapple the gruesome fiend, 
5 Foe against foe, to fight for our life. 
And he that shall fall his faith must put 
In the judgment of God. If Grendel wins 
He is minded to make his meal in the hall 
Untroubled by fear, on the folk of the Jutes, 

lo As often before he fed on the Danes. 

No need for thee then to think of my burial. 
If I lose my life, the lonely prowler 
My blood-stained body will bear to his den. 
Swallow me greedily, and splash with my gore 

15 His lair in the marsh ;Ano longer wilt then 
Have need to find me food and sustenance. 
To Hygelac send, if I sink in the battle, 
This best of corslets that covers my breast. 
Heirloom of Hrethel, rarest of byrnies, 

20 The work of Weland. So Wyrd will be done." 



VII 

The Feasting in Heorot and the Customs of the 

Hall 

Hrothgar spoke, the Scyldings' defender : 

"Thou hast come, dear Beowulf, to bring us help, 

For the sake of friendship to fight our battles. (438) 

(Hrothgar recounts the exploits of Beowulf's father.) 
Sad is my spirit and sore it grieves me (473) 



BEOWULF 17 

To tell to any the trouble and shame {474) 

That Grendel hath brought me with bitter hate, 
The havoc he wrought in my ranks in the hall. 
My war-band dwindles, driven by Wyrd 
5 Into Grendel's grasp ; but God may easily 
End this monster's mad career. 
Full often they boasted, my beer-bold warriors. 
Brave o'er their ale-cups, the best of my fighters. 
They'd meet in the mead-hall the mighty Grendel, 

10 End his orgies with edge of the sword. 

But always the mead-hall, the morning after, 
The splendid building, was blood-bespattered ; 
Daylight dawned on the drippings of swords, 
Soiled with slaughter were sills and benches. 

15 My liege-men perished, and left me poor. 
Sit down to the board; unbend thy thoughts; 
Speak to my men as thy mood shall prompt." 
For the band of the Jutes a bench was cleared; 
Room in the mead-hall was made for them all. 

20 Then strode to their seats the strong-hearted heroes. 
The warriors' wants a waiting-thane served; 
Held in his hand the highly-wrought ale-cup. 
Poured sparkling mead, while the minstrel sang 
Gaily in Heorot. There was gladness of heroes, 

25 A joyous company of Jutes and of Danes. 



VIII 

Unferth Taunts Beowulf 

Then up spoke Unferth, Ecglaf's son. 
Who sat at the feet of the Scylding ruler; 



i8 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

He vented his jealousy. The journey of Beowulf, 
His sea-adventure, sorely displeased him. (502) 

It filled him with envy that any other 
Should win among men more war-like glory, 
5 More fame under heaven than he himself: 
"Art thou the Beowulf that battled with Brecca, 
Far out at sea, when ye swam together. 
What time you two made trial of the billows, 
Risking your lives in reckless folly, 

10 On the open sea? None might dissuade you. 
Friend nor foe, from the fool-hardy venture. 
When straight from the shore you struck for the open. 
Breasted the waves and beat with your arms 
The mounting billows, measured the sea-paths 

15 With lusty strokes. Stirred was the ocean 
By wintry storms. Seven days and nights 
Your sea-strife lasted ; at length he beat you ; 
His strength was the better; at break of day 
He made the beach where the Battle-Reamas 

20 Dwell by the shore; and straightway returned 

To his people beloved in the land of the Brondings, 
Where liegemen and towns and treasure were his. 
In sooth I say, the son of Beanstan 
His boast against thee made good to the full. 

25 But now I ween a worse fate awaits thee 
Though thy mettle be proved in many a battle 
And grim encounter, if the coming of Grendel 
Thou darest abide, in the dead of the night." 
Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgtheow : 

30 "What a deal of stuff thou hast talked about Brecca, 
Garrulous with drink, my good friend Unferth. 
Thou hast lauded his deeds. Now listen to me! 



BEOWULF 19 

More sea-strength had I, more ocean-endurance 
Than any man else, the wide earth round. (534) 
*Tis true we planned in the pride of our youth 
This ocean-adventure, and vowed we would risk 
5 Our lives in the deep, each daring the other. 

We were both of us boys, but our boast we fulfilled. 
Our naked swords as we swam from the land, 
We held in our grasp, to guard against whales. 
Not a stroke could he gain on me, strive as he would, 

10 Make swifter speed through the swelling waves. 
Nor could I in swimming o'ercome him at sea. 
Side by side in the surge we labored 
Five nights long. At last we were parted 
By furious seas and a freezing gale. 

15 Night fell black; the norther wild 

Rushed on us ruthless and roughened the sea. 
Now was aroused the wrath of the monsters. 
But my war-proof ring-mail, woven and hand-locked. 
Served me well 'gainst the sea beasts' fury; 

20 The close-linked battle-net covered my breast. 

I was dragged to the bottom by a bloody-thirsty mon- 
ster, 
Firm in his clutch the furious sea-beast 
Helpless held me. But my hand came free. 
And my foe I pierced with point of my sword. 

25 With my battle-blade good 'twas given me to kill 
The dragon of the deep, by dint of my blow." 



20 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

IX 

Beowulf Completes the Story of His Swimming 
Adventure with Brecca. Hrothgar's De- 
parture FROM THE Hall 

"Thus sore beset me sea-beasts thronging, (559) 

Murderous man-eaters. I met their charges, 

Gave them their due with my goodly blade. 

They failed of their fill, the feast they expected 
5 In circle sitting on the sea-floor together 

With me for their meal. I marred their pleasure. 

When morning came, they were cast ashore 

By the wash of the waves ; their wounds proved fatal ; 

Bloated and dead on the beach they lay. 
10 No more would they cross the course of the ships 

In the chop of the channel charge the sailors. 

Day broke in the east, bright beacon of God; 

The sea fell smooth. I saw bold headlanas, i 

Windy walls; for Wyrd oft saveth 
15 A man not doomed, if he dauntless prove. 

My luck did not fail me, my long sword finished 

Nine of the nicors. Ne'er have I heard 

Of fiercer battle fought in the night; 

Of hero more harried by horrors at sea. 
20 Yet I saved my life from the sea-beasts' clutch. 

Worn with the struggle, I was washed ashore 

In the realm of the Finns by the run of the tide. 

The heave of the flood. I have failed to hear 

Of like adventure laid to thee, 
25 Battle so bitter. Brecca did never, — 

Neither of you was known to achieve 

Deed so valiant, adventure so daring. 



BEOWULF 21 

Sword-play so nimble ; not that I boast of it, (5S6) 
But mark me, Unferth, you murdered your brothers. 
Your closest of kin. The curse of hell 
For this you will suffer, though sharp be your wit. 
5 In sooth I say to you, son of Ecglaf, 

Never had Grendel such grim deeds wrought. 
Such havoc in Heorot, so harried your king 
With bestial fury, if your boasted courage 
In deeds as well as in words you had proved. 

10 But now he has found he need not fear 

Vengeance fierce from the Victory-Scyldings, 
Ruthless attack in return for his raids. 
He takes his toll of your tribe as he pleases, 
Sparing none of your spearmen proud. 

15 He ravens and rages and recks not the Dane folk. 
Safe from their sword-play. But soon I will teach him 
How the Jute-folk fight. Then freely may go 
To the mead-hall who likes, when the light of morn- 
ing, 
The next day's dawn, the dark shall dispel, 

20 And the heaven-bright sun from the south shall 
shine.*' 

Glad in his heart was the giver of rings. 
Hoped to have help, the hoar-headed king; 
The Shield-Danes' shepherd was sure of relief. 
When he found in Beowulf so firm a resolve. 
25 There was laughter of heroes. Loud was their 
revelry. 
Words were winsome as Wealhtheow rose. 
Queen of Hrothgar, heedful of courtesy. 
Gold-adorned greeted the guests in the hall. 



22 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

First to her lord, the land-defender, (^^5) 

The high-born lady handed the cup; 
Bade him be gleeful and gay at the board. 
And good to his people. Gladly he took it, 
5 Quaffed from the beaker, the battle- famed king. 
Then leaving her lord, the lady of the Helmings 
Passed among her people in each part of the hall. 
Offered the ale-cup to old and young, 
Till she came to the bench where Beowulf sat. 

lo The jewel-laden queen in courteous manner 
Beowulf greeted; to God gave thanks. 
Wise in her words, that her wish was granted. 
That at last in her trouble a trusted hero 
Had come for comfort. The cup received 

15 From Wealhtheow's hand the hardy warrior. 
And made this reply, his mind on the battle ; 
Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgtheow : 
"I made up my mind when my mates and I 
Embarked in our boat, outbound on the sea, 

20 That fully I'd work the will of thy people. 
Or fall in the fight, in the clutch of the fiend. 
I surely shall do a deed of glory. 
Worthy an earl, or end my days. 
My morning of life, in the mead hall here." 

25 His words pleased well the wife of Hrothgar, 
The Jutish lord's boast. The jewelled queen 
Went to sit by the side of her lord. 

Renewed was the sound of noisy revel. 
Wassail of warriors. Brave words were spoken. 
30 Mirth in the mead-hall mounted high, 
Till Healfdene's son the sign did give 



BEOWULF 23 

That he wished to retire. Full well he knew (646) 
The fiend would find a fight awaiting him, 
When the light of the sun had left the hall, 
And creeping night should close upon them, 
5 And shadowy shapes come striding on 
Dim through the dark. The Danes arose. 
Hrothgar again gave greeting to Beowulf, 
Wished him farewell; the wine-hall lofty 
He left in his charge. These last words spoke he : 

10 ''Never before have I fully entrusted 
To mortal man this mighty hall, 
Since arm and shield I was able to lift. 
To thee alone I leave it now. 
To have and to hold it. Thy hardihood prove ! 

15 Be mindful of glory; keep watch for the foe! 

No reward shalt thou lack if thou live through this 
fight. 



Beowulf's Watch in Heorot 

Then Hrothgar went with his warrior-band. 
The Arm-of-the-Scyldings, out of the hall. 
Would the war-lord Wealhtheow seek, 

20 The queen for his bed-mate. The best of kings 
Had placed in the hall, so heroes report, 
A watch against Grendel, to guard his house, 
Deliverance bring to the land of the Danes. 
But the lord of the Jutes joyfully trusted 

25 In the might of his arm and the mercy of God. 
Off he stripped his iron byrnie. 



24 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Helmet from head, and handed his sword, (^7^) 

Choicest of blades, to his body-thane, 
And bade him keep the battle armor. 
Then made his boast once more the warrior, 
5 Beowulf the bold, ere his bed he sought. 
Summoned his spirit; ''Not second to Grendel 
In combat I count me and courage of war. 
But not with the sword will I slay this foeman. 
Though light were the task to take his life. 

10 Nothing at all does he know of such fighting, 

Of hewing of shields, though shrewd be his malice 
111 deeds to contrive. We two in the night 
Shall do without swords, if he dare to meet me 
In hand to hand battle. May the holy Lord 

15 To one or the other award the victory. 
As it seems to Him right. Ruler all-wise." 
Then he sought his bed. The bolster received 
The head of the hero. In the hall about him, 
Stretched in sleep, his sailormen lay. 

20 Not one of them thought he would ever return 
Home to his country, nor hoped to see 
His people again, and the place of his birth. 
They had heard of too many men of the Danes 
O'ertaken suddenly, slain without warning, 

25 In the royal hall. But the Ruler on High 
Through the woof of fate to the Wederfolk gave 
Friendship and help, their foes to o'ercome, 

By a single man's strength to slay the destroyer. 
Thus all may learn that the Lord Almighty 
30 Wields for aye the Wyrds of men. (702) 



BEOWULF 25 

Beowulf's Fight With Grendel 

Now Grendel came, from his crags of mist (/-fo) 
Across the moor; he was curst of God. 
The murderous prowler meant to surprise 
In the high-built hall his human prey. 
5 He stalked 'neath the clouds, till steep before him 
The house of revelry rose in his path, 
The gold-hall of heroes, the gaily adorned. 
Hrothgar's home he had hunted full often. 
But never before had he found to receive him 

10 So hardy a hero, such hall-guards there. 
Close to the building crept the slayer. 
Doomed to misery. The door gave Way, 
Though fastened with bolts, when his fist fell on it. 
Maddened he broke through the breach he had made; 

15 Swoln with anger and eager to slay. 

The ravening fiend o'er the bright-paved floor 
Furious ran, while flashed from his eyes 
An ugly glare like embers aglow. 
He saw in the hall, all huddled together, 

20 The heroes asleep. Then laughed in his heart 
The hideous fiend; he hoped ere dawn 
To sunder body from soul of each; 
He looked to appease his lust of blood, 
Glut his maw with the men he would slay. 

25 But Wyrd had otherwise willed his doom; 
Never again should he get a victim 
After that night. Narrowly watched 
Hygelac's thane how the horrible slayer 
Forward should charge in fierce attack. 



26 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Nor was the monster minded to wait: (739) 

Sudden he sprang on a sleeping thane, 

Ere he could stir, he slit him open; 

Bit through the bone-joints, gulped the blood, 
5 Greedily bolted the body piecemeal. 

Soon he had swallowed the slain man wholly. 

Hands and feet. Then forward he hastened. 

Sprang at the hero, and seized him at rest; 

Fiercely clutched him with fiendish claw. 
10 But quickly Beowulf caught his forearm, 

And threw himself on it with all his weight. 

Straight discovered that crafty plotter. 

That never in all midearth had he met 

In any man a mightier grip. 
15 Gone was his courage, and craven fear 

Sat in his heart, yet helped him no sooner. 

Fain would he hide in his hole in the fenland. 

His devil's den. A different welcome 

From former days he found that night! 
20 Now Hygelac's thane, the hardy, remembered 

His evening's boast, and bounding up, 

Grendel he clenched, and cracked his fingers; 

The monster tried flight, but the man pursued ; 

The ravager hoped to wrench himself free, 
25 And gain the fen, for he felt his fingers 

Helpless and limp in the hold of his foe. 

'Twas a sorry visit the man-devourer 

Made to the Hall of the Hart that night. 

Dread was the din, the Danes were frighted 
30 By the uproar wild of the ale-spilling fray. 

The hardiest blenched as the hall-foes wrestled 

In terrible rage. The rafters groaned; 



BEOWULF 27 

'Twas wonder great that the wine-hall stood, (//i) 
Firm 'gainst the fighters' furious onslaught, 
Nor fell to the ground, that glorious building. 
With bands of iron 'twas braced and stiffened 
5 Within and without. But off from the sill 
Many a mead-bench mounted with gold 
Was wrung where they wrestled in wrath together. 
The Scylding nobles never imagined 
That open attack, or treacherous cunning, 

10 Could wreck or ruin their royal hall. 
The lofty and antlered, unless the flames 
Should some day swallow it up in smoke. 
The din was renewed, the noise redoubled; 
Each man of the Danes was mute with dread, 

15 That heard from the wall the horrible wail, 
The gruesome song of the godless foe, 
His howl of defeat, as the fiend of hell 
Bemoaned his hurt. The man held fast; 
Greatest he was in grip of strength, 

20 Of all that dwelt upon earth that day. 



XII 

The Defeat of Grendel 

Loath in his heart was the hero-deliverer 
To let escape his slaughterous guest. 
Of little use that life he deemed 
To human kind. The comrades of Beowulf 
25 Unsheathed their weapons to ward their leader, 
Eagerly brandished their ancient blades, 
The life of their peerless lord to defend. 



28 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Little they deemed, those dauntless warriors, (/p8) 
As they leaped to the fray, those lusty fighters, 
Laying on boldly to left and to right, 
Eager to slay, that no sword upon earth 
5 No keenest weapon could wound that monster : 
Point would not pierce, he was proof against iron; 
'Gainst victory-blades the devourer was charmed. 
But a woful end awaited the wretch, 
That very day he was doomed to depart, 
10 And fare afar to the fiends' domain. 

Now Grendel found, who in former days 

So many a warrior had wantonly slain, 

In brutish lust, abandoned of God, 

That the frame of his body was breaking at last. 

15 Keen of courage, the kinsman of Hygelac 
Held him grimly gripped in his hands. 
Loath was each to the other alive. 
The grisly monster got his death-wound : 
A huge split opened under his shoulder; 

20 Crunched the socket, cracked the sinews. 
Glory great was given to Beowulf. 
But Grendel escaped with his gaping wound, 
O'er the dreary moor his dark den sought. 
Crawled to his lair. 'Twas clear to him then, 

25 The count of his hours to end had come. 
Done were his days. The Danes were glad, 
The hard fight was over, they had their desire. 
Cleared was the hall, 'twas cleansed by the hero 
With keen heart and courage, who came from afar. 

30 The lord of the Jutes rejoiced in his work, 
The deed of renown he had done that night. 



BEOWULF 29 

His boast to the Danes he bravely fulfilled; (S2p) 
From lingering woe delivered them all; 
From heavy sorrow they suffered in heart; 
From dire distress they endured so long; 
From toil and from trouble. This token they saw : 
The hero had laid the hand of Grendel 
Both arm and claws, the whole forequarter 
With clutches huge, 'neath the high-peaked roof. 



XIII 

The Celebration of the Victory and the Song 

OF THE GlEEMAN 

When morning arrived, so runs the report, 

10 Around the gift-hall gathered the warriors; 
The folk-leaders fared from far and near. 
The wide ways o'er, the wonder to view. 
The wild beast's foot-prints. Not one of them felt 
Regret that the creature had come to grief, 

15 When they traced his retreat by the tracks on the 
moor; 
Marked where he wearily made his way. 
Harried and beaten, to the haunt of the nicors. 
Slunk to the water, to save his life. 
There they beheld the heaving surges, 

20 Billows abrim with bloody froth, 

Dyed with gore, where the gruesome fiend, 
Stricken and doomed, in the struggle of death 
Gave up his ghost in the gloom of the mere, 
His heathen soul for hell to receive it. 

25 Then from the mere the thanes turned back, 



30 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Men and youths from the merry hunt, (^54) 

Home they rode on their horses gray, 
Proudly sitting their prancing steeds. 
Beowulf's prowess was praised by all. 
5 They all agreed that go where you will, 
'Twixt sea and sea, at the south or the north, 
None better than he, no braver hero. 
None worthier honor could ever be found. 
(They meant no slight to their master and lord 
lo The good king Hrothgar, their ruler kind.) 

Now and again the noble chiefs 
Gave rein to their steeds, and spurred them to race. 
Galloped their grays where the ground was smooth. 
Now and again a gallant thane, 
1 5 Whose mind was stored with many a lay, 
With songs of battle and sagas old, 
Bound new words in well-knit bars. 
Told in verse the valor of Beowulf, 
Matched his lines and moulded his lay. (^7^) 

Here is introduced an episode of the Nibelungen Legend. The 
gleeman tells how Sigmund the Votsung with his son and nephew 
Fitela ranged the forests and slew wild beasts. Later when Fitela 
was no longer with him, Sigmund killed a dragon and won a 
great treasure. 

20 When the lay was ended they urged once more (pi 6) 
Their racers fleet to fly o'er the plain. 
As the morning sped, and the sun climbed higher, 
Many went in, the marvellous sight 
More closely to scan. The king himself 



BEOWULF 31 

With a troop of trusty retainers about him (921) 
Strode from his bower; the bestower-of-rings 
Came, and with him the queen, in state, 
The meadow-path trod, by her maidens attended. 



/ XIV 

Hrothgar's Praise of Beowulf, and Beowulf's 
Reply 

5 Hrothgar spoke when he reached the hall, 
Stood on the step, and stared at the roof 
Adorned with gold, and Grendel's hand: 
'Trompt be my heart to praise the Almighty 
For the sight I behold. Much harm have I suffered, 

10 And grief from Grendel, but God still works 
Wonder on wonder, the Warden of Glory. 
But a little while since, I scarcely dared, 
As long as I lived, to look for escape 
From my burden of sorrow, when blood-stained stood 

15 And dripping with slaughter, this stately hall. 
Wide-spread woe my warriors scattered; 
They never hoped this house to rid. 
While life should last, this land-mark of people. 
Of demons and devils. 'Tis done by the hero. 

20 By the might of the Lord this man has finished 
The feat that all of us failed to achieve 
By wit or by war. And well may she say, 
— Whoever she be, — that bore this son, 
That the Ancient of Days dealt with her graciously, 

25 And blest her in child-birth. Now Beowulf, hear! 
I shall henceforth hold thee, hero beloved, 



32 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

As child of my own, and cherish thee fondly (P48) 
In kinship new. Thou shalt never lack 
Meed of reward that is mine to give. 
For deeds less mighty have I many times granted 
5 Fullest reward to warriors feebler, 

In battle less brave. Thy boldness and valor 
Afar shall be known; thy fame shall live 
To be great among men. Now God the Almighty 
With honor reward thee, as ever he doth." 

10 Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgtheow: 

''Gladly we fought this good fight through, 
Fearlessly faced the foe inhuman, 
Grappled him gruesome; it grieves me sore 
That the man -beast himself you may not see, 

15 Dead in the hall, fordone in the fray. 
I meant to master the monster quickly. 
To his death-bed pin him by power of my grip. 
Hold him hard till my hand could strangle him. 
Bringing him low, but he broke away. 

20 In vain I tried to prevent his escape. 

The Lord was unwilling; I lost my hold 

On the man-destroyer ; too strong was the monster. 

Too swift on his feet. But to save his life 

He left behind him the whole of his fore-paw, 

25 Arm and shoulder. 'Twas a useless shift, 
Profiting nothing. He ne'er will prolong 
His life by the loss, the loathly slayer, 
Sunk in sin ; but sorrow holds him, 
Caught in the grasp of its grip relentless, 

30 In woful bonds to await in anguish, 
Guilty wretch, the rest of his doom, 



BEOWULF 33 

As the Lord Almighty shall mete it to him." (p/p) 

More silent seemed the son of Ecglaf 
Less boastful in bragging of brave deeds done 
When all of them, looking aloft, beheld 
5 The hand on high, where it hung 'neath the roof, 
The claw of the fiend; each finger was armed 
With a steel-like spur instead of a nail, 
The heathen's handspikes, the horrible paw 
Of the evil fiend. They all declared 
10 No iron blade could e'er have bit 

On the monstrous bulk of the man beast's hide. 
Or hewn away that woful talon. 



XV 

The Feasting and Giving of Treasure In the Hall 

Now orders were given the guest-hall to cleanse, 
And furnish it fresh. Forth went hurrying 

15 Men and maids. To the mead-hall they went 
And busily worked. Woven tapestries. 
Glinting with gold, hung gay on the walls. 
Marvellous wonders for men to look upon. 
Ruin and wreck had been wrought in the building, 

20 Though braced within by iron bands. 

The hinges were wrenched, the roof alone stood 
Undamaged and sound, when the sin-spotted wretch 
The demon destroyer, in despair of his life. 
Turned and made off, — not easy it is 

25 To escape from death, essay it who will. 



34 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

(So each of us all to his end must come {1004) 

Forced by fate to his final abode 
Where his body, stretched on the bier of death, 
Shall rest after revel.) Now right was the hour 
5 For Heal f dene's heir to enter the hall; . 
The king himself would come to the feast. 
I never have heard of nobler bearing 
'Mongst ranks of liegemen surrounding their lord 
As they took their seats, the trusty comrades, 

10 And fell to feasting. Freely quaffed 
Many a mead-cup the mighty kinsmen 
Hrothgar and Hrothulf, the high hall within. 
Heorot was filled with a friendly host. 
(Far was the day when the Scylding host 

15 Should treachery plot, betraying each other.) 
Then Healfdene's son bestowed on Beowulf 
A gold-adorned banner for battle-reward, 
A rich-broidered standard, breast-plate and helmet. 
The swordmen assembled saw the treasures 

20 Borne before the hero. Beowulf drank 

The health of Hrothgar, nor had reason to feel 
Ashamed before shieldmen to show his reward. 
Never were offered by earls that I heard of, 
In token of friendship four such treasures, 

25 Never was equalled such ale-bench bounty. 
Round the ridge of the helmet a rim of iron 
Wound with wire, warded the head. 
That the offspring of files, with fearful stroke. 
The hard-tempered sword-blade, might harm it not, 

30 When fierce in the battle the foemen should join. 
At a sign from the king, eight stallions proud 
Bitted and bridled were brought into hall. 



BEOWULF 35 

On the back of one was a wondrous saddle, (loj/) 
Bravely wrought and bordered with jewels, 
The battle-seat bold of the best of kings 
When Hrothgar himself would ride to the sword-play. 
5 (Nor flinched from the foe the famous warrior 
In the front of the fight where fell the slain.) 
To the hero delivered the lord of the Scyldings 
The heir of Ing, both armor and horses, 
Gave them to Beowulf, and bade him enjoy them, 
lo Thus royally, the ruler famous, 

The heroes' hoard-guard, heaped his bounty; 
Repaid the struggle with steeds and trophies, 
Praised by all singers who speak the truth. 



XVI 

The King's Gifts To Beowulf's Men, And the 
Gleeman's Lay of Finn 

The Lord of the earls then added gifts, 
15 At the mead-bench remembered the men, each one, 
That Beowulf brought o'er the briny deep. 
With ancient heirlooms and offered to pay 
In gold for the man that Grendel had slain. 
As more of them surely the monster had killed 
20 Had not holy God and the hero's courage 
Averted their doom. (So daily o'errules 
The Father Almighty the fortunes of men. 
Therefore is insight ever the best, 
And prudence of mind; for much shall suffer 
25 Of lief and of loath who long endures 
The days of his life in labor and toil.) 



36 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Now music and song were mingled together, (lodj) 
In the presence of Hrothgar, ruler in war. 
Harp was struck and hero-lays told. 
Along the mead-bench the minstrel spread 
5 Cheer in hall when he chanted the lay 

Of the sudden assault on the sons of Finn. (1068) 

The episode which follows, alludes obscurely to details of a feud 
between Frisians and Danes. The Finnsburg fragment contains 
a portion of the same story and one of the heroes, Hnaef, is also 
mentioned in Widsith. 

XVII 

The Lay of Finn Ended. The Speech of the 
Queen 

The lay was ended, (11 jp) 

The gleeman's song. Sound of revelry 

Rose again. Gladness spread 
10 Along bench and board. Beer- thanes poured 

From flagons old the flowing wine. 

Wealhtheow the queen walked in state, 

Under her crown, where uncle and nephew 

Together sat, — they still were friends. 
15 There too sat Unferth, trusted counsellor, 

At Hrothgar's feet; though faith he had broken 

With his kinsmen in battle, his courage was proved. 

Then the queen of the Scyldings spoke these words : 

"Quaff of this cup my king and my lord, 
20 Gold-friend of men. To thy guests be kind. 

To the men of the Jutes be generous with gifts. 

Far and near thou now hast peace. 

I have heard thou dost wish the hero for son 



BEOWULF 37 

To hold as thy own, now Heorot is cleansed, {1176) 
The jewel-bright hall. Enjoy while thou mayest, 
Allotment of wealth, and leave to thy heirs 
Kingdom and rule when arrives the hour 
5 That hence thou shalt pass to thy place appointed. 
Well I know that my nephew Hrothulf 
Will cherish in honor our children dear 
If thou leavest before him this life upon earth; 
He will surely requite the kindness we showed him, 

10 Faithfully tend our two young sons, 

When to mind he recalls our care and affection 
How we helped him and housed him when he was a 

child." 
She turned to the bench where her two boys sat 
Hrethric and Hrothmund, and the rest of the youth, 

15 A riotous band, and right in their midst, 
Between the two brothers, Beowulf sat. 

xvni 

The Queen's Gifts to Beowulf 
With courteous bow the cup she offered, 
Greeted him graciously and gave him to boot 
Two armlets rare of twisted gold, 
20 A robe and rings, and the rarest collar; 
A better was never known among men, 
Since Hama brought to his bright-built hall 
The jewelled necklace, the gem of the Brisiiigs. 

{1199) 

Lines 1190-1215 interrupt the narrative to tell of the subsequent 
history of Wealhtheow's -gift ; how Beowulf gave it to Hygelac, who 
wore it on his famous raid against the Frisians, in which he was 
slain by the Franks. 



38 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Before the warriors Wealhtheow spoke: {12 15) 

"Accept dear Beowulf, this bright-gemmed collar; 
Make happy use of this heirloom jewelled, 
This ring and robe and royal treasure; 
5 Be brave and bold. My boys instruct 
In gentle manners; mine be the praise. 
Thou hast done such a deed that in days to come 
Men will proclaim thy might and valor 
To the ends of the earth where the ocean- wave 

10 Washes the windy walls of the land. 
I wish thee joy of thy jewelled treasure, 
Long be thy life ; enlarge thy prosperity. 
Show thee a friend to my sons in deed. 
Here each earl to the other is faithful, 

15 True to his liege-lord, loyal and kind. 

My warriors obey me, willing and prompt. 
The Danes carousing, do as I bid." 
She went to her seat, the wine flowed free; 
'Twas a glorious feast. The fate that impended, 

20 None of them knew, though near to them all. 

When darkness came, the king of the Danes 
Went to his rest in the royal bower; 
But a throng of his kinsmen kept the hall 
As they used to do in the days of old. 
25 They cleared the boards and covered the floor 
With beds and bolsters. One beer-thane there 
Lay down to sleep with his doom upon him. 
They placed by their heads their polished shields, 
Their battle-boards bright, on the bench nearby. 



BEOWULF 39 

Above each earl, within easy reach, (1244) 

Was his helmet high and his harness of mail 
And the spear-shaft keen. 'Twas their custom so, 
That always at rest they were ready for war 
At home or abroad, where'er they might be. 
At what hour soever for aid might call 
Their lord and king; they were comrades true. 

END OF THE FIRST ADVENTURE 



XIX 

The Coming of Grendel's Dam to Avenge Her Son 

Then sank they to sleep, but sorely paid 
One poor wretch for his rest that night. 

10 The same thing fell, as in former days 

When Grendel his raids on the gold-hall made. 
Before the fiend had found his match. 
Caught in his sins. 'Twas seen that night 
An avenger survived the villainous fiend 

15 Although they had ceased from their sorrow and care. 
'Twas Grendel's mother, a monstrous hag. 
She remembered her loss. She had lived in the deep. 
In a water-hell cold since Cain had become 
The evil slayer of his only brother, 

20 His kin by blood ; accursed he fled 

Marked by murder from men's delights, 
Haunted the wilds; from him there sprung 
Ghastly demon-shapes, Grendel was one. (1266) 

The omitted lines break the narrative to turn back to the 
Grendel fight. 



40 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Now grim and vengeful (12^6) 
His mother set out on her errand of woe, 
Damage to wreak for the death of her son. 
Arrived at Heorot, the Ring-Danes she found 
5 Asleep in the hall. Soon was to come 
Surprise to the earls when into the hall 
Burst Grendel's dam. (Less grim was the terror 
As terror of woman in war is less, 
— The fury of maidens, than full-armed men's, 

10 When the blood-stained war-blade with wire-bound 
hilt. 
Hard and hammer- forged, hurtling through air. 
Hews the boar from the helmet's crest.) 
Many the swords that were suddenly drawn. 
Blades from the benches; buckler and shield 

15 Were tightly grasped; no time for the helmet, 

For harness of mail, when the horror was on them. 
The monster was minded to make for the open ; 
Soon as discovered, she sought to escape. 
Quickly she seized a sleeping warrior, 

20 Fast in her clutch to the fens she dragged him. 
He was to Hrothgar of heroes the dearest, 
Most trusted of liegemen between the two seas. 
Comrade the nearest, killed in his sleep. 
The bravest in battle. Nor was Beowulf there : 

25 They had elsewhere quartered the earl that night. 
After the giving of gifts in the hall. 
There was shouting in Heorot; the hand she seized. 
The bloody talon, she took away. 



BEOWULF 41 

Sorrow was renewed in the nearby dwellings, ( IJ04 ) 
Bad was the bargain that both had made 
To pay for their friends with further lives lost. 
With grief overcome was the gray-haired king 
5 When he learned that his thane was alive no more, 
His dearest comrade by death o'ertaken. 
Quick from his bower was Beowulf fetched, 
The hero brave. At break of dawn 
He with his comrades came to the place 

10 Where the king in sorrow was waiting to see 

Whether God the Wielder of All would grant him 

A turn in his tide of trouble and woe. 

Then entered the room the ready hero; 

With his band of brave men the boards resounded. 

15 He eagerly greeted the aged ruler. 

Delayed not to ask the lord of the Ingwines 
If his night had passed in peace and quiet. 



XX 

Hrothgar Describes the Haunt of the Monster 

AND Asks Beowulf to Undertake 

A Second Adventure 

Hrothgar spoke, the Scylding defender: 
"Speak not of peace, for pain is renewed 
20 'Mongst all the Danes. Dead is ^schere. 
Elder brother of Irmenlaf, 
My comrade true and counsellor trusted. 
My right-hand friend when in front of the combat 
We stood shoulder to shoulder, when shield-burg 
broke, 



42 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

And boar-crests crashed in battle together. {1^28) 

Earls should ever like ^schere be. 

On Heorot's floor he was foully slain 

By warlock wild. I wot not whither 
5 The prey-proud fury hath fled to cover, 

Glutted and gorged. With gruesome claws 

And violence fierce she avenged thy deed, 

The slaying of Grendel her son last night. 

Because too long my loyal thanes 
10 He had hunted and hurt. In the hall he fell; 

His Hfe was forfeit. To the fray returned 

Another as cruel, her kin to avenge; 

Faring from far, the feud re-opened. 

Hence many a thane shall mourn and think 
15 Of the giver of gifts with grief renewed 

And heart-woe heavy. The hand lies low 

That fain would have helped and defended you all. 

I have heard my people, the peasant folk 

Who house by the border and hold the fens, 
20 Say they have seen two creatures strange, 

Huge march-stalkers, haunting the moorland. 

Wanderers outcast. One of the two 

Seemed to their sight to resemble a woman; 

The other manlike, a monster misshapen, 
25 But huger in bulk than human kind. 

Trod an exile's track of woe. 

The folk of the fen in former days 

Named him Grendel. Unknown his father. 

Or what his descent from demons obscure. 
30 Lonely and waste is the land they inhabit, 

Wolf-cliffs wild and windy headlands, 

Ledges of mist, where mountain torrents 



BEOWULF 43 

Downward plunge to dark abysses, (1^60) 

And flow unseen. Not far from here 
O'er the moorland in miles, a mere expands: 
Spray-frosted trees o'erspread it, and hang 
5 O'er the water with roots fast wedged in the rocks. 
There nightly is seen, beneath the flood, 
A marvellous light. There lives not the man 
Has fathomed the depth of the dismal mere. 
Though the heather-stepper, the strong-horned stag, 

10 Seek this cover, forspent with the chase. 
Tracked by the hounds, he will turn at bay. 
To die on the brink ere he brave the plunge, 
Hide his head in the haunted pool. 
Wan from its depths the waves are dashed, 

15 When wicked storms are stirred by the wind. 
And from sullen skies descends the rain. 
In thee is our hope of help once more. 
Not yet thou hast learned where leads the way 
To the lurking-hole of this hatcher of outrage. 

20 Seek, if thou dare, the dreaded spot! 
Richly I pay thee for risking this fight, 
With heirlooms golden and ancient rings, 
As I paid thee before, if thou come back alive." 



XXI 

The Arrival of Hrothgar and Beowulf at Gren- 
del's Mere 

Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgtheow : 
25 "Sorrow not gray-beard, nor grieve o'er thy friend! 
Vengeance is better than bootless mourning. 



44 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

To each of us here the end must come (^3^^) 

Of life upon earth : let him who may 

Win glory ere death. I deem that best, 

The lot of the brave, when life is over. 
5 Rise, O realm-ward, ride we in haste, 

To track the hag that whelped this Grendel. 

I tell thee in truth, she may turn where she will, 

No cave of ocean nor cover of wood, 

No hole in the ground shall hide her from me. 
10 But one day more thy woe endure. 

And nurse thy hope as I know thou wilt." 

Sprang to his feet the sage old king. 

Gave praise to God for the promise spoken. 

And now for Hrothgar a horse was bridled, 
15 A curly-maned steed. The king rode on. 

Bold on his charger. A band of shield-men 

Followed on foot. Afar they saw 

Footprints leading along the forest. 

They followed the tracks, and found she had crossed 
20 Over the dark moor, dragging the body 

Of the goodliest thane that guarded with Hrothgar 

Heorot Hall, and the home of the king. 

The well-born hero held the trail ; 

Up rugged paths, o'er perilous ridges, 
25 Through passes narrow, an unknown way. 

By beetling crags, and caves of the nicors. 

With a chosen few he forged ahead. 

Warriors skilled, to scan the way. 

Sudden they came on a cluster of trees 
30 Overhanging a hoary rock, 

A gloomy grove; and gurgling below, 

A stir of waters all stained with blood. 



BEOWULF 45 

Sick at heart were the Scylding chiefs, (1418) 

Many a thane was thrilled with woe, 
For there they beheld the head of ^schere 
Far beneath at the foot of the cliff. 
5 They leaned and watched the waters boil 
With bloody froth. The band sat down. 
While the war-horn sang its summons to battle. 
They saw in the water sea-snakes a many, 
Wave-monsters weird, that wallowed about. 

10 At the base of the cliff lay basking the nicors, 
Who oft at sunrise ply seaward their journey. 
To hunt on the ship-trails and scour the main. 
Sea-beasts and serpents. Sudden they fled. 
Wrathful and grim, aroused by the hail 

15 Of the battle-horn shrill. The chief of the Jutes, 
With a bolt from his bow a beast did sunder 
From life and sea-froHc; sent the keen shaft 
Straight to his vitals. Slow he floated. 
Upturned and dead at the top of the waves. 

20 Eager they boarded their ocean-quarry; 

With barb-hooked boar-spears the beast they gaffed. 
Savagely broached him and brought him to shore. 
Wave-plunger weird. The warriors viewed 
The grisly stranger. But straightway Beowulf 

25 Donned his corslet nor cared for his life. . . . (1442) 

Lines 1442- 1473 break the narrative with a description of Beo- 
wulf's armor and the sword Hrunting, lent him by Unferth. 



46 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

XXII 

Beowulf's Fight With Grendel's Dam 

To Hrothgar spoke the son of Ecgtheow: (^473) 

"Remember O honored heir of Healfdene, 

Now that I go, thou noble king, 

Warriors' gold-friend, what we agreed on, 
5 If I my life should lose in thy cause. 

That thou wouldst stand in stead of my father, 

Fulfil his office when I was gone. 

Be guardian thou, to my thanes and kinsmen, 

My faithful friends, if I fail to return, 
lo To Hygelac send, Hrothgar beloved, 

The goodly gifts thou gavest to me. 

May the lord of the Jutes, when he looks on this 
treasure, 

May Hrethel's son, when he sees these gifts, 

Know that I found a noble giver, 
15 And joyed while I lived, in a generous lord. 

This ancient heirloom to Unferth give. 

To the far-famed warrior, my wondrous sword 

Of matchless metal. I must with Hrunting 

Glory gain, or go to my death." 

20 After these words the Weder-Jute lord 
Sprang to his task, nor staid for an answer. 
Swiftly he sank 'neath the swirling flood; 
'Twas an hour's time ere he touched the bottom. 
Soon the sea-hag, savage and wild, 

25 Who had roamed through her watery realms at will, 
For winters a hundred, was 'ware from below, 
An earthling had entered her ocean domain. 



BEOWULF 47 

Quickly she reached and caught the hero; {1500) 
Grappled him grimly with gruesome claws. 
Yet he got no scratch, his skin was whole; 
His battle-sark shielded his body from harm. 
5 In vain she tried, with her crooked fingers. 
To tear the links of his close-locked mail. 
Away to her den the wolf -slut dragged 
Beowulf the bold, o'er the bottom ooze. 
Though eager to smite her, his arm was helpless. 

10 Swimming monsters swarmed about him. 
Dented his mail with dreadful tusks. 
Sudden the warrior was 'ware they had come 
To a sea-hall strange and seeming hostile, 
Where water was not nor waves oppressed, 

15 For the caverned rock all round kept back 
The swallowing sea. He saw a light, 
A flicker of flame that flashed and shone. 
Now first he discerned the sea-hag monstrous. 
The water-wife wolfish. His weapon he raised, 

20 And struck with his sword a swinging blow. 
Sang on her head the hard-forged blade 
Its war-song wild. But the warrior found 
That his battle-flasher refused to bite, 
Or maim the foe. It failed its master 

25 In the hour of need, though oft it had cloven 
Helmets, and carved the casques of the doomed 
In combats fierce. For the first time now 
That treasure failed him, fallen from honor. 
But Hygelac's earl took heart of courage; 

30 In mood defiant he fronted his foe. 
The angry hero hurled to the ground, 
In high disdain, the hilt of the sword, 



48 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The gaudy and jewelled; rejoiced in the strength 

Of his arm unaided. So all should do (^534) 

Who glory would find and fame abiding, 

In the crash of conflict, nor care for their lives. 
5 The Lord of the Battle- Jutes braved the encounter; 

The murderous hag by the hair he caught ; 

Down he dragged the dam of Grendel 

In his swelling rage, till she sprawled on the floor. 

Quick to repay in kind what she got, 
lo On her foe she fastened her fearful clutches; 

Enfolded the warrior weary with fighting; 

The sure-footed hero stumbled and fell. 

As helpless he lay, she leapt on him fiercely ; 

Unsheathed her hip-knife, shining and broad, 
15 Her son to avenge, her offspring sole. 

But the close-linked corslet covered his breast. 

Foiled the stroke and saved his life. 

All had been over with Ecgtheow's son, 

Under the depths of the ocean vast, 
20 Had not his harness availed to help him, 

His battle-net stiff, and the strength of God. 

The Ruler of battles aright decided it; 

The Wielder all-wise awarded the victory : 

Lightly the hero leaped to his feet. 



XXIII 

Beowulf's Victory and Return to Heorot 

25 He spied 'mongst the arms a sword surpassing. 
Huge and ancient, a hard-forged slayer. 
Weapon matchless and warriors' delight. 



BEOWULF 49 

Save that its weight was more than another (1^60) 

Might bear into battle or brandish in war; 

Giants had forged that finest of blades. 

Then seized its chain-hilt the chief of the Scyldings ; 
5 His wrath was aroused, reckless his mood, 

As he brandished the sword for a savage blow. 

Bit the blade in the back of her neck, 

Cut the neck-bone, and cleft its way 

Clean through her flesh ; to the floor she sank ; 
10 The sword was gory; glad was the hero. 

A light flashed out from the inmost den. 

Like heaven's candle, when clear it shines 

From cloudless skies. He scanned the cave. 

Walked by the wall, his weapon upraised ; 
15 Grim in his hand the hilt he gripped. 

Well that sword had served him in battle. 

Steadily onward he strode through the cave, 

Ready to wreak the wrongs untold, 

That the man-beast had wrought in the realm of 

Danes. . . . (^57^) 

20 He gave him his due when Grendel he found (1^84) 

Stretched as in sleep, and spent with the battle. 

But dead was the fiend, the fight at Heorot 

Had laid him low. The lifeless body 

Sprang from the blows of Beowulf's sword, 
25 As fiercely he hacked the head from the carcass. 

But the men who were watching the water with 

Hrothgar 
Suddenly saw a stir in the waves. 
The chop of the sea all churned up with blood 
And bubbling gore. The gray-haired chiefs 



50 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

For Beowulf grieved, agreeing together (i595) 

That hope there was none of his home-returning, 
With victory crowned, to revisit his lord. 
Most of them feared he had fallen prey 
5 To the mere-wolf dread in the depths of the sea. 
When evening came, the Scyldings all 
Forsook the headland, and Hrothgar himself 
Turned homeward his steps. But sick at heart 
The strangers sat and stared at the sea, 

10 Hoped against hope to behold their comrade 
And leader again. 

Now that goodly sword 
Began to melt with the gore of the monster; 
In bloody drippings it dwindled away. 

15 'Twas a marvellous sight: it melted like ice. 
When fetters of frost the Father unlocks, 
Unravels the ropes of the wrinkled ice, 
Lord and Master of months and seasons. 
Beheld in the hall the hero from Juteland 

20 Treasures unnumbered, but naught he took. 
Save Grendel's head, and the hilt of the sword, 
Bright and jewelled, — the blade had melted. 
Its metal had vanished, so venomous hot 
Was the blood of the demon-brute dead in the cave. 

25 Soon was in the sea the slayer of monsters; 

Upward he shot through the shimmer of waves; 

Cleared was the ocean, cleansed were its waters. 

The wolfish water-hag wallowed no more; 

The mere-wife had yielded her miserable life. 
30 Swift to the shore the sailors' deliverer 

Came lustily swimming, with sea-spoil laden; 



BEOWULF 51 

Rejoiced in the burden he bore to the land. {1625) 
Ran to meet him his mailed comrades, 
With thanks to God who gave them their leader 
Safe again back and sound from the deep. 
5 Quickly their hero's helmet they loosened, 

Unbuckled his breastplate. The blood-stained waves 
Fell to a calm 'neath the quiet sky. 
Back they returned o'er the tracks with the footprints. 
Merrily measured the miles o'er the fen, 

10 Way they knew well, those warriors brave; 

Brought from the holm-cliff the head of the monster ; 
'Twas toil and labor to lift the burden, 
Four of their stoutest scarce could carry it 
Swung from a spear-pole, a staggering load. . . . 

{1638) 

15 Thus the fourteen of them, thanes adventurous. 

Marched o'er the moor to the mead-hall of Hrothgar. 
Tall in the midst of them towered the hero; 
Strode among his comrades, till they came to the hall. 
In went Beowulf, the brave and victorious, 

20 Battle-beast hardy, Hrothgar to greet. 
Lifting by the hair the head of Grendel, 
They laid it in the hall, where the heroes were carous- 
ing. 
Right before the king, and right before the queen ; 
Gruesome was the sight that greeted the Danes. 



52 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

XXIV XXV 

Beowulf's Story of His Fight, and Hrothgar*s 
Counsel 

Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgtheow: {1651) 

"Gladly we offer this ocean-booty, 

That here thou lookest on, lord of the Scyldings, 

For sign of victory, son of Healfdene. 
5 Hard was the fight I fought under water ; 

That combat nearly cost me my life. 

Soon had been ended the ocean-encounter, 

Had God in his mercy not given me aid. 

No help I got from the good blade Hrunting, 
10 The well-tried weapon worthless proved. 

By the grace of God, who guided me friendless, 

A splendid old sword I spied on the wall. 

Hanging there, huge ; by the hilt I grasped it, 

And seeing my chance, I struck amain 
15 At the sea-cave's wardens, when sudden the blade 

Melted and burned, as the blood gushed out. 

The battle-gore hot. The hilt I saved 

From the villainous fiends, and avenged their crimes, 

The murder of the Danes, as was meet and due. 
20 I promise thee now, in peace thou shalt sleep 

In Heorot hall, with the whole of thy band. 

Thou and thy thanes may throng within 

As ye used of yore, both young and old. 

Thou need'st not fear renewal of strife, 
25 Harm to thy folk at the hands of the fiends." 

The golden hilt was given to the king ; 

The jewelled work of the giants of old 

Came into hand of the hoary warrior. 



BEOWULF 53 

On the death of the demons, the Danish lord kept it, 
Wondersmiths' work. When the world was rid 
Of the evil fiend, the enemy of God, (1681) 

Guilty of murder, and his mother too, 
5 The trophy passed to the peerless lord, 
The goodliest king, that gave out treasure 
Between the two seas on Scandia's isle. 
Hrothgar gazed on the golden hilt, 
Relic of old, where was writ the tale 

10 Of a far-off fight, when the flood o'erwhelmed, 
The raging sea, the race of the giants 
(They wantonly dared to war against God; 
Then rose in his wrath the Ruler Eternal, 
'Neath the heaving billows buried them all.) 

15 On the polished gold of the guard of the hilt. 
Runes were writ that rightly told. 
To him that read them, for whom that weapon, 
Finest of sword-blades, first was made. 
The splendid hilt with serpents entwined. 

20 All were silent, when the son of Healfdene, 
The wise king spoke : "Well may he say. 
The aged ruler, who aye upholds 
Truth and right, 'mid the ranks of his people, 
Whose mind runs back to by-gone days, 

25 This guest is born of a goodly breed. 
Thy fame shall fly afar among men, 
Beowulf my friend, firmly thou boldest 
Both wisdom and might. My word will I keep. 
The love that I profifered. Thou shalt prove a de- 
liverer 

30 To thy folk and followers in far-off years, 
A help to the heroes. Not Heremod thus 



54 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Ecgwela's heir, did offer at need {lyio) 

His strength to the Scyldings ; instead, he brought 
Slaughter and death on the sons of the Danes. 
Swoln with wrath he slew his comrades, 
5 His friends at the board and fled alone, 
Ill-famed earl, an outcast from men. 
Though God endowed him with gifts of strength, 
With boldness and might above all men, 
And prospered him greatly, yet he grew to be 
lo Blood-thirsty and cruel. No bracelets he gave 
To the Danes as was due, but dwelt in gloom 
Reaped the reward of the woful strife. 
And wearisome feud. Take warning from him. 

{1722) 

Hrothgar now delivers a long sermon to Beowulf on the dangers 
of pride, the fickleness of fortune, and the brevity of life, and ends 
by asking him to sit down to the feast, promising more gifts on 
the morrow. 

Beowulf hastened, happy in mood, (iy8§) 

1 5 To seek his bench as bid by the king. 

Once more, as of old, for the earls in hall, 
The famous in battle, the board was set 
For feasting anew. When night with its shadows 
O'erwhelmed the world, the heroes arose. 

20 The gray-haired ruler his rest would seek, 
The Scylding his bed ; and Beowulf too. 
The lusty warrior, longed for his sleep. 
Soon an attendant showed the way 
To the stranger from far, spent with his faring. 

25 With courtly custom, he cared for his needs. 
All that to warriors, overseas wandering. 
Was due in those days, he did for the guest. 



BEOWULF 55 

High-gabled and gold-decked, the gift-hall towered; 
The stout-hearted hero slept soundly within, (1800) 
Till the raven black, with blithe heart hailed 
The bliss of heaven, and bright the sun 
5 Came gliding o'er earth. Then, eager to start, 
The warriors wakened ; they wished to set out 
On their homeward journey. The hero brave 
Would board his ship, and back again sail. 
The hardy one bade that Hrunting be brought 

10 To the son of Ecglaf : the sword he offered him; 
Thanked him for lending the lovely weapon; 
Called it a war-friend, keen in the battle; 
Not a word in blame of the blade he uttered. 
Great-hearted hero. Now hastened the guests, 

15 Eager to part, and armed for their voyage. 
Their dauntless leader, beloved of the Danes, 
Came to the high-seat, and to Hrothgar the king 
The bold-in-battle now bade farewell. (18 16) 



XXVI 

Beowulf's Leave-Taking of Hrothgar 

Beowulf spoke, the son of Ecgtheow : 
20 "Now we sea-farers would make known our desire 
Far-travelled wanderers, we wish to return 
To Hygelac now. A hearty welcome 
We here have found, thou hast harbored us well. 
H ever on earth I may anywise win, 
25 Master of men, more of thy love 

Than now I have won, for another adventure 
Of arms and war I am eager and willing. 



56 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

If ever I hear, o'er the ocean-ways (1826) 

That neighbor-tribes threaten annoyance or war, 
As feud-seeking foemen aforetime assailed thee, 
A thousand thanes to thee will I bring, 
5 Heroes to help thee. For Hygelac, I know. 
Though young in years will yield me aid ; 
The people's Shepherd will surely help me 
By word and deed to do thee service. 
And bring thee spear-shafts to speed thee in battle, 

10 Thy might to strengthen when men thou needest. 
If ever Hrethric, heir of thy line. 
Should come to sojourn at the court of the Jutes, 
A host of friends he will find awaiting him. 
Who boasts himself brave, abroad should travel." 

1 5 The aged Hrothgar answering spoke : 
"To utter these words, the All-wise Lord 
Hath prompted thy heart; more prudent counsel 
From one in years so young as thou, 
I never have heard. Thou art hardy in strength, 

20 And sage in spirit, and speakest well. 
If ever it happen that Hrethel's heir 
Be stricken by spear and slain in battle. 
If sickness or sword assail thy lord. 
And thou survive him, I think it likely 

25 The Sea- Jutes in vain will seek for a better 
As choice for their king, their chief to become 
And rule o'er the thanes, if thou be willing 
The lordship to hold. The longer I know thee 
The better I like thee, Beowulf my friend. 

30 Thou hast brought it about that both our peoples 
Jutes and the Spear-Danes shall be joined in peace. 
They shall cease from war, the strife shall be ended 



BEOWULF 57 

The feuds of aforetime, so fiercely waged. (1S38) 
While I rule this realm, our riches we share ; 
Many shall travel with treasure laden, 
Each other to greet, o'er the gannet's bath; 
5 O'er the rolling waves the ringed prow 
Tokens of friendship shall freely bring 
And bind our people in peace together. 
Toward friend and foe, in faith as of old." 

Still other treasures, twelve in all, 
10 Healf dene's heir in the hall bestowed 

On Beowulf brave, and bade him take them 

And seek his people, and soon return. 

Then kissed the king, of kin renowned. 

The thane beloved. The lord of the Scyldings 
15 Fell on his neck. Fast flowed the tears 

Of the warrior gray; he weighed both chances, 

But held to the hope, though hoary with years. 

That each should see the other again. 

And meet in the mead-hall. The man was so dear 
20 That he could not restrain the storm in his breast. 

Locked in his heart, a hidden longing 

For the man he loved so, left him no peace. 

And burnt in his blood. But Beowulf went; 

The gold-decked hero the grass-way trod 
25 Proud of his booty. The boat awaited 

Its owner and master, where at anchor it rode. 

As they went on their way, the warriors praised 

The bounty of Hrothgar, the blameless king. 

None was his equal till age snatched away 
30 The joy of his manhood, — no mortal it spares. 



58 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

XXVII 

Beowulf's Return Voyage to Hygelac 

Then came to the coast the comrades brave (1888) 

The lusty warriors, wearing their ring-nets, 

Their chain Hnked corslets. The coast-guard saw 
them. 

The same that at first had spied them coming; 
5 This time he chose not to challenge them harshly, 

But gave them his greeting, galloping toward them. 

Said the Weder-folk would welcome the sight of them 

Boarding their ship in shining armor. 

Then by the sands, the seaworthy craft, 
10 The iron-ringed keel, with arms was laden. 

With horses and treasure. On high the mast 

Towered above the treasures of Hrothgar. 

To the man who had waited as watchman aboard, 

Beowulf gave a gold-bound sword. 
15 (Oft on the mead-bench that heirloom precious 

Its owner would honor.) When all had embarked, 

They drove for the deep, from Daneland's shore. 

Then soon did the mast its sea-suit wear, 

A sail was unfurled, made fast with ropes, 
20 The sea-wood sang as she sped o'er the ocean 

No baffling head-wind hindered her course; 

The foamy-necked floater flew o'er the billows, 

The sea-craft staunch o'er the salt-sea waves. 

Till they came in sight of the cliffs of Jutland 
25 The well known capes, and the wind-driven keel 

Grating the sand, stood still on the shore. 

Soon was at hand the harbor-watch eager. 

Long had he looked for his loved companions 



BEOWULF 59 

Scanning the sea for their safe return. (ipi^) 

The broad-bosomed boat to the beach he moored 

With anchor-ropes fast, lest the force of the waves 

That comely craft should cast adrift. 

Then Beowulf bade them bring ashore 

His treasure-cargo of costly gold 

And weapons fine; not far was the way 

To Hygelac's hall, where at home he dwelt 

The king and his comrades, close by the sea. {1940) 

END OF THE SECOND ADVENTURE 



After the death of Hygelac and his son, Beowulf became king of 
the Jutes, and ruled over them fifty years. In his old age his 
people were harried by a fire-dragon whom the hero went out to 
fight. It seems that an outlaw, banished and flying for shelter, had 
come upon a treasure hid in a deep cave or barrow, guarded by a 
dragon. Long years before, an earl, the last of his race, had buried 
the treasure. After his death the dragon, sniffing about the stones, 
had found it and guarded it three hundred years, until the banished 
man discovered the place, and carried off one of the golden goblets. 
In revenge the dragon made nightly raids on Beowulf's realm, flying 
through the air, spitting fire, burning houses and villages, even 
Beowulf's hall, the "gift-stool" of the Jutes. Beowulf had an iron 
shield made against the dragon's fiery breath, and with eleven com- 
panions, sought out the hill-vault near the sea. These events are 
related in Sections XXVIII-XXXV of the Beowulf MS. 

XXXV 

Beowulf's Fight With the Fire Dragon 

Before attacking the fire-dragon Beowulf once more and for the 
last time makes his "battle-boast" in the presence of his followers. 

10 Beowulf said to them, brave words spoke he: {2510) 
"Brunt of battles I bore in my youth ; 



6o OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

One fight more I make this day. {2512) 

I mean to win fame defending my people, 
If the grim destroyer will seek me out, 
Come at my call from his cavern dark." 
5 Then he greeted his thanes each one, 

For the last time hailed his helmeted warriors, 
His comrades dear. 'T should carry no sword. 
No weapon of war 'gainst the worm should bear, 
If the foe I might slay by strength of my arm, 

10 As Grendel I slew long since by my hand. 
But I look to fight a fiery battle. 
With scorching puffs of poisonous breath. 
For this I bear both breastplate and shield; 
No foot will I flinch from the foe of the barrow. 

15 Wyrd is over us, each shall meet 

His doom ordained at the dragon-cliff! 
Bold is my mood, but my boast I omit 
'Gainst the battle-flier. Abide ye here. 
Heroes in harness, hard by the barrow, 

20 Cased in your armor the issue await : 
Which of us two his wounds shall survive. 
Not yours the attempt, the task is mine. 
'Tis meant for no man but me alone 
To measure his might 'gainst the monster fierce. 

25 I get you the gold in glorious fight. 

Or battle-death bitter shall bear off your lord." 

Uprose with his shield the shining hero. 
Bold 'neath his helmet. He bore his harness 
In under the cliff; alone he went, 

30 Himself he trusted; no task for faint-heart. 
Then saw by the wall the warrior brave, 



BEOWULF 6i 

Hero of many a hard-fought battle, (^543) 

Arches of stone that opened a way; 

From the rocky gate there gushed a stream, 

BubbHng and boihng with battle-fire. 
5 So great the heat no hope was there 

To come at the hoard in the cavern's depth, 

Unscathed by the blast of the scorching dragon. 

He let from his breast his battle-cry leap ; 

Swoln with rage was the royal Jute, 
lo Stormed the stout-heart; strong and clear 

Through the gloom of the cave his cry went ringing. 

Hate was aroused, the hoard-ward knew 

The leader's hail. Too late 'twas now 

To parley for peace. The poisonous breath 
15 Of the monster shot from the mouth of the cave. 

Reeking hot. The hollow earth rumbled. 

The man by the rock upraised his shield, 

The lord of the Jutes, 'gainst the loathly dragon. 

Now kindled for battle the curled-up beast; 
20 The king undaunted with drawn sword stood, 

'Twas an heirloom olden with edge of lightning. 

Each was so fierce he affrighted the other. 

Towering tall 'neath tilted shield. 

Waited the king as the worm coiled back, 
25 Sudden to spring: so stood he and waited. 

Blazing he came in coils of fire 

Swift to his doom. The shield of iron 

Sheltered the hero too short a while, — 

Life and limb it less protected 
30 Than he hoped it would, for the weapon he held 

First time that day he tried in battle; 



62 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Wyrd had not willed he should win the fight, (-^i/i) 

But the lord of the Jutes uplifted his arm, 

Smote the scaly worm, struck him so fierce 

That his ancient bright-edged blade gave way, 
5 Bent on the bone, and bit less sure 

Than its owner had need in his hour of peril. 

That sword-stroke roused the wrath of the cave- 
guard; 

Fire and flame afar he spirted. 

Blaze of battle; but Beowulf there 
lo No victory boasted: his blade had failed him. 

Naked in battle, as never it should have. 

Well-tempered iron. Nor easy it was 

For Ecgtheow's heir, honored and famous. 

This earth to forsake, forever to leave it ; 
15 Yet he must go, against his will 

Elsewhere to dwell. So we all must leave 

This fleeting life. — Erelong the foes 

Bursting with wrath the battle renewed. 

The hoard-ward took heart, and with heaving breast 
20 Came charging amain. The champion brave, 

Strength of his people, was sore oppressed, 

Enfolded by flame. No faithful comrades 

Crowded about him, his chosen band, 

All sethelings' sons, to save their lives, 
25 Fled to the wood. One of them only 

Felt surging sorrow; for nought can stifle 

Call of kin in a comrade true; 



BEOWULF 63 

XXXVI 

Wiglaf's Reproach to His Comrades. Beowulf 
Mortally Wounded. 

The shield-thane beloved, lord of the Scylfings, 
Wiglaf was called ; 'twas Weohstan's son (260 j) 

^Ifhere's kinsman. When his king he saw 
Hard by the heat under helmet oppressed, 
3 He remembered the gifts he had got of old, 
Lands and wealth of the Waegmunding line, 
The folk-rights all that his father's had been ; 
He could hold no longer, but hard he gripped 
Linden shield yellow and ancient sword. . . . (2610) 
The intervening lines tell the history of the sword and the feuds 
in which it has participated. 

10 For the first time there the faithful thane, {2625) 
Youthful and stalwart, stood with his leader, 
Shoulder to shoulder in shock of battle. 
Nor melted his courage, nor cracked his blade, 
His war-sword true, as the worm found out 

15 When together they got in grim encounter. 

Wiglaf in wrath upbraided his comrades, 
Sore was his heart as he spake these words : 
''Well I mind when our mead we drank 
In the princely hall, how we promised our lord 

20 Who gave us these rings and golden armlets, 
That we would repay his war-gifts rich. 
Helmets and armor, if haply should come 
His hour of peril; us hath he made 
Thanes of his choice for this adventure; 

25 Spurred us to glory, and gave us these treasures 



64 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Because he deemed us doughty spearmen, {2641) 

Helmeted warriors, hardy and brave. 

Yet all the while, unhelped and alone, 

He meant to finish this feat of strength, 
5 Shepherd of men and mightiest lord 

Of daring deeds. The day is come,' — 

Now is the hour he needs the aid 

Of spearmen good. Let us go to him now. 

Help our hero while hard bestead 
10 By the nimble flames. God knows that I 

Had rather the fire should ruthlessly fold 

My body with his, than harbor me safe. 

Shame it were surely our shields to carry 

Home to our lands, unless we first 
15 Slay this foe and save the life 

Of the Weder-king. Full well I know 

To leave him thus, alone to endure. 

Bereft of aid, breaks ancient right. 

My helmet and sw^ord shall serve for us both ; 
20 Shield and armor we share to-day." 

Waded the warrior through welter and reek ; 

Buckler and helmet he bore to his leader ; 

Heartened the hero with words of hope : 

''Do thy best now, dearest Beowulf. 
25 Years ago, in youth, thou vowedst 

Living, ne'er to lose thine honor, 

Shield thy life and show thy valor. 

I stand by thee to the end!" 

After these words the worm came on, 
30 Snorting with rage, for a second charge ; 

All mottled with fire his foes he sought, 



BEOWULF 65 

The warriors hated. But Wiglaf's shield (^^7^) 

Was burnt to the boss by the billows of fire ; 

His harness helped not the hero young. 

Shelter he found 'neath the shield of his kinsman, 
5 When the crackling blaze had crumbled his own. 

But mindful of glory, the mighty hero 

Smote amain with his matchless sword. 

Down it hurtled, driven by anger. 

Till it stuck in the skull ; then snapped the blade, 
10 Broken was Nsegling, Beowulf's sword. 

Ancient and gray. 'Twas granted him never 

To count on edge of iron in battle; 

His hand was too heavy, too hard his strokes. 

As I have heard tell, for every blade 
15 He brandished in battle: the best gave way. 

And left him helpless and hard bestead. 

Now for a third time neared the destroyer; 

The fire-drake fierce, old feuds remembering, 

Charged the warrior who wavered an instant; 
20 Blazing he came and closed his fangs 

On Beowulf's throat; and throbbing spirts 

Of life-blood dark o'erdrenched the hero. 



xxxvn 

The Slaying of the Dragon 

Then in the hour of utmost peril. 
The stripling proved what stock he came of; 
25 Showed his endurance and dauntless courage. 

Though burnt was his hand when he backed his kins- 
man. 



66 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

With head unguarded the good thane charged, 
Thrust from below at the loathly dragon, (^^pp) 
Pierced with the point and plunged the blade in, 
The gleaming-bright, till the glow abated 
5 Waning low. Ere long the king 
Came to himself, and swiftly drew 
The warknife that hung at his harness' side, 
And cut in two the coiled monster. 
So felled they the foe and finished him bravely, 

lo Together they killed him, the kinsmen two, 
A noble pair. So needs must do 
Comrades in peril. For the king it proved 
His uttermost triumph, the end of his deeds 
And work in the world. The wound began, 

15 Where the cave-dragon savage had sunk his teeth. 
To swell and fever, and soon he felt 
The baleful poison pulse through his blood, 
And burn in his breast. The brave old warrior 
Sat by the wall and summoned his thoughts, 

20 Gazed on the wondrous work of the giants : 
Arches of stone, firm-set on their pillars. 
Upheld that hill-vault hoar and ancient. 

Now Beowulf's thane, the brave and faithful. 

Dashed with water his darling lord, 
25 His comrade and king all covered with blood 

And faint with the fight; unfastened his helmet. 

Beowulf spoke despite his hurt. 

His piteous wound; full well he knew 

His years on earth were ended now, 
30 His hours of glad life gone for aye 

His days allotted, and death was near : 



BEOWULF 67 

"Now would I gladly give to a son (2729) 

These weapons of war, had Wyrd but granted 
That heir of my own should after me come, 
Sprung from my loins. This land have I ruled 
5 Fifty winters. No folk-king dared, 

None of the chiefs of the neighboring tribes, 
To touch me with sword or assail me with terror 
Of battle-threats. I bided at home, 
Held my peace and my heritage kept, 

10 Seeking no feuds nor swearing false oaths. 
This gives me comfort, and gladdens me now, 
Though wounded sore and sick unto death. 
As I leave my life, the Lord may not charge me 
With killing of kinsmen. Now quickly go, 

15 Wiglaf beloved, to look at the hoard. 

Where hidden it rests 'neath the hoary rock. 
For the worm lies still, put asleep by his wound, 
Robbed of his riches. Then rise and haste! 
Give me to see that golden hoard, 

20 To gaze on the store of glorious gems. 
The easier then I may end my life. 
Leave my lordship that long I held." 



XXXVIII 

The Rescue of the Hoard and the Death of 
Beowulf 

Swiftly, 'tis said, the son of Weohstan 
Obeyed the words of his bleeding lord, 
25 Maimed in the battle. Through the mouth of the cave 
Boldly he bore his battle-net in. 



68 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Glad of the victory, he gazed about him; (^75<^) 
Many a sun-bright jewel he saw, 
Glittering gold, strewn on the ground. 
Heaped in the den of the dragon hoary, 
5 Old twilight-flier, — flagons once bright. 
Wassail cups wondrous of warriors departed 
Stript of their mountings, many a helmet 
Ancient and rusted, armlets a many. 
Curiously woven. (Wealth so hoarded, 

lo Buried treasure, will taint with pride 
Him that hides it, whoever it be.) 
Towering high o'er the hoard he saw 
A gleaming banner with gold inwoven, 
Of broi^ure rare ; its radiance streamed 

15 So bright, he could peer to the bounds of the cave, 
Survey its wonders ; no worm was seen. 
Edge of the sword had ended his life. 
Then, as they say, that single adventurer 
Plundered the hoard that was piled by the giants ; 

20 Gathered together old goblets and platters. 
Took what he liked ; the towering banner 
Brightest of beacons he brought likewise. 
The blade of Beowulf, his brave old chief, 
With edge of iron had ended the life 

25 Of him that had guarded the golden hoard 
For many a year, and at midnight hour 
Had spread the terror of surging flames 
In front of the den, till death overtook him. 
So Wiglaf returned with treasure laden. 

30 The high-souled hero hastened his steps. 
Anxiously wondered if he should find 
The lord of the Weders alive where he left him 



BEOWULF 69 

Sapped of his strength and stretched on the ground. 
As he came from the hill he beheld his comrade, 
His lord of bounty, bleeding and faint, (^7^P) 

Near unto death. He dashed him once more 
5 Bravely with water, till burden of speech 
Broke from his breast, and Beowulf spoke, 
Gazing sad at the gold before him : 
"For the harvest of gold that here I look on, 
To the God of Glory I give my thanks. 

10 To the Ruler Eternal I render praise 
That ere I must go, he granted me this, 
To leave to my people this priceless hoard. 
'Twas bought with my life ; now look ye well 
To my people's need when I have departed. 

15 No more I may bide among ye here. 

Bid the battle-famed build on the foreland 
A far-seen barrow when flames have burnt me. 
High o'er the headland of whales it shall tower, 
A beacon and mark to remind my people. 

20 And sailors shall call it in years to come 
Beowulf's Barrow, as bound from afar 
Their tall ships stem the storm-dark seas. 

The great-hearted king unclasped from his neck 
A collar of gold and gave to his thane, 

25 The brave young warrior, his bright-gilt helmet. 
Breastplate and ring. So bade him farewell : 
"Thou art the last to be left of our house. 
Wyrd hath o'erwhelmed our Waegmunding line, 
Swept my kinsmen swift to their doom. 

30 Earls in their prime. I must follow them." 
These words were the last that the warrior gray 
Found, ere the funeral-flames he chose. 



70 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Swift from his bosom his soul departed 

To find the reward of the faithful and true. {2820) 

In lines 2821 -2891, Section XXXIX of the MS., the narrative 
doubles back upon itself to repeat the description of Beowulf and 
the dragon lying dead before the cave, and to report Wiglaf's re- 
proach to the returning deserters. 



XL 

Beowulf's Death Announced to the People. The 
Speech of the Herald. 

Then Wiglaf bade the battle-work tell {28^2) 

To the sorrowful troop that had sat all day 
5 At the sea-cliff's edge, their shields in hand, 

In dread and in hope, yet doubtful of either : 

Their dear lord's return, or his death in the fight. 

The herald that came to the headland riding. 

Nought kept back of the news that befell, 
10 But truthfully told them the tidings all: 

"Now lies low the lord of the Weders; 

The generous giver of gifts to the Jutes, 

Sleeps his battle-sleep, slain by the worm. 

At his side lies stretched his slaughterous foe, 
15 Fordone by the dagger. The dragon fierce 

Would take no wound from touch of sword; 

Its blade would not bite. At Beowulf's side 

Wiglaf sits, the son of Weohstan ; 

By the hero dead, the hero living 
20 At his head keeps watch with woful heart 

O'er friend and foe. (^P^<?) 



BEOWULF 71 

The Herald now warns of renewed attacks on the Jutes by- 
Franks and Frisians, and alludes to the origin of the feud in the 
famous raid in which Hygelac was slain. He further warns of 
renewed attacks by the Swedes, now that Beowulf is dead, and 
refers to the origin of the wars between Swedes and Jutes and to 
a famous battle at "Ravenswood." The episodic digression over, 
the herald returns to present events. 



XLI 

The Herald's Speech Concluded 

'Tis time we hasten (300/) 

To see where Hes our lord and king, 
Our giver of bounty, and bear him away 
To the funeral pyre; of precious gems 
5 Not a few shall melt in the fire with him. 
The hoard he won, the wealth untold. 
The priceless treasure he purchased so dear, 
And bought with his life at the bitter end, 
The flame shall enfold it, the fire consume. 

10 No warrior one keepsake shall carry away. 
No necklace be worn by winsome maid. 
In sorrow rather, and reft of her gold, 
Alone she shall tread the track of an exile. 
Now our lord lies low, his laughter stilled, 

15 His mirth and revel. Now many a spear 
Shall morning-cold be clasped in the hand 
And held on high. No harp shall soimd 
The warriors to wake, but the wan-hued raven 
Shall croak o'er the carcass and call to the eagle, 

20 To tell how he fared at the feast after battle 

When he and the gray wolf gorged on the slain." 



72 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Thus ended his tale, his tidings of woe, (^028) 

The faithful thane, nor falsely reported 
Wyrd or word. The warriors rose; 
To the Eagles' Cliff they came in sadness, 
5 With welling tears, the wonder to see. 
Lying helpless, their lord they found 
Stretched on the ground, the giver of rings. 
The end had come to him, open-handed 
King of the Weders, warrior brave. 

10 That day a fearful death he had found. 
A stranger thing they saw near by : 
The loathsome monster lying dead 
On the field where they fought, the fiery dragon, 
The gruesome beast was burnt and charred. 

15 Fifty feet in full he measured 

In length, as he lay, along the ground. 
*Twas his wont at night to wing aloft 
And dip to earth as his den he sought; 
Now he lay dead, his night-revels over. 

20 Scattered about were bowls and flagons. 
Golden platters, and priceless swords. 
With rust eaten through, as though they had lain 
Winters a thousand in the womb of the earth. 
O'er that heritage huge, the hoard of afore-time, 

25 A spell had been woven to ward off despoilers. 
And none might touch the treasure-vault hidden; 
Save that God alone, the Lord of victory. 
The Guardian of men, might grant the power 
To unlock the hoard, and lift the treasure, 

30 To such a hero as to Him seemed meet. {3^57) 



BEOWULF 73 

XLII 

Beowulf's Body Carried to the Funeral Pyre and 
THE Dragon Cast into the Sea. 

Wiglaf spoke, the son of Weohstan: (i^/d) 

''Let us go once more to gaze at the marvels {3101) 
Still left 'neath the rock; I will lead you in 
Where your hands may touch great heaps of gold, 
5 Bracelets and rings. Let the bier be ready 
When out of the cave we come again. 
To bear away the warrior brave, 
Our lord beloved, where long he shall bide. 
Kept in the sheltering care of God." 

10 The son of Weohstan, warrior brave, 
Called on the folk-men, far and wide. 
From house and home to hasten and bring 
Wood for the pyre of the peerless man, 
His funeral pile. "Now fire shall consume, 

15 The wan flame wax o'er the warrior strong, 
Who oft stood firm in the iron shower 
When the storm of arrows, sent from the bow-string. 
Flew o'er the shield-wall, and the fleet-winged shaft, 
Feathered behind, pushed home the barb." 

20 Now the wise young warrior, Weohstan's son. 
Seven men called, of the king's own thanes, 
The best of the band; the bravest he gathered; 
Himself the eighth, they sought the den 
Of the hateful beast; one bore in his hand 

25 A lighted torch and led the way. 

No lots were drawn for the dragon's' hoard 
When they saw it lying, loose in the cave, 
Uncared for, unguarded, unclaimed by a soul; 



74 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

There was none to hinder as they hurried away, 
Laden with spoils and splendid heirlooms. (3130) 
O'er the edge of the cliff they cast the dragon, 
Into the sea, the scaly worm; 
5 Let the waves engulf the gold-hoard's keeper. 
On a wagon they loaded the wondrous treasure, 
Gold past counting. The gray-haired king 
They bore to the pyre, on the Point of Whales. 



XLIII 

The Burning of Beowulf's Body 

Then built for Beowulf the band of the Jutes 

10 A funeral pyre; 'twas firmly based. 

They hung it with helmets as he had bidden. 
With shining byrnies and battle-shields. 
In the midst they laid, with loud lament, 
Their lord beloved, their leader brave. 

15 On the brow of the clifT they kindled the blaze, 
Black o'er the flames the smoke shot up; 
Cries of woe, in the windless air. 
Rose and blent with the roar of the blast, 
Till the frame of the body burst with the heat 

20 Of the seething heart. In sorrowing mood 
They mourned aloud their leader dead. 
Joined in the wail a woman old. 
With hair upbound for Beowulf grieved. 
Chanted a dreary dirge of woe, 

25 Dark forebodings of days to come. 

Thick with slaughter and throes of battle. 
Bondage and shame. The black smoke rose. 



BEOWULF 75 

High on the headland they heaped a barrow, {3136) 
Lofty and broad 'twas built by the Weders, 
Far to be seen by sea- faring men. 
Ten days long they toiled to raise it, 
5 The battle-king's beacon. They built a wall 
To fence the brands of the funeral burning, 
The choicest and best their chiefs could devise. 
In the barrow they buried the bracelets and rings, 
All those pieces of precious treasure 
10 That bold-hearted men had brought from the cave, 
Returned to earth the heirloom of heroes, 
The gold to the ground, again to become 
As useless to men as of yore it had been. 

Around the barrow the battle-brave rode, 
15 Twelve in the troop, all true-born sethelings, 

To make their lament and mourn for the king; 

To chant a lay their lord to honor. 

They praised his daring; his deeds of prowess 

They mentioned in song. For meet it is 
20 That men should publish their master's praise, 

Honor their chieftain, and cherish him dearly 

When he leaves this life, released from the body. 

Thus joined the men of the Jutes in mourning 
Their hero's end. His hearth-companions 
25 Called him the best among kings of the earth, 
Mildest of men, and most beloved, 
Kindest to kinsmen, and keenest for fame. 

END OF BEOWULF 



76 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

THE LIFE OF THE GLEEMAN 

(From the Widsith) 

Widsith unlocked his store of lays. (i) 

Farthest he fared among folk on earth 
Through sundry lands receiving gifts 
In many a mead-hall. From Myrgings sprung 
5 His ancient line. With Alhild beloved 
Weaver of peace he went at the first 
From Angles to east of us, to Ermanric's home, 
King of the Hreth-Goths, the ruthless traitor 
And treaty-breaker. Much-travelled he sang: — 

lo I v^as with Ermanric all that time (88) 

But the king of the Goths proved kind to me 
Gave me a ring that royal giver. 
Of gold-work pure, worth good six hundred 
Shining shillings, as shown by scale. 

15 When home I returned, my treasure I gave 
To Edgils my lord, my beloved protector. 
In lieu of the lands he let me hold, 
The ruler of Myrgings, in right of my father. 
Alhild my lady, Edwin's daughter, 

20 Queen of the daring, bequeathed me another; 
Praise of her bounty was published abroad. 
When I made my lays through many a land ; 
Told of the goodliest gold-decked queen 
Known among men for making of gifts. 

25 Then Scilling and I our song uplifted; 
Before our ruler with ringing voice, 



WIDSITH ^7 

Loud to the harp our lay we chanted; (-^^^i) 

Many there were, warriors mighty, 

Skilled in our art who openly said 

They never heard singing of songs that was better. 
5 Far I roamed o'er the realm of the Goths, 

Seeking for comrades the strongest and bravest : 

Ever the first were Ermanric's followers. . . .(iii) 

Many a spear, sped from the midst of them, (-f^/) 

Yelling aloud as it leaped at the foe. 
10 Wudga and Hama took women and men; 

The banished comrades won booty of gold. 

In all my faring I found it true : 

He to whom God hath given the power 

To be lord of men, is most beloved, 
15 Who holds his kingdom while here he lives. 

Thus fated to wander, wayfaring gleemen 
Make their songs in many a land. 
Ask their need and utter their thanks. 
North or south, ever some one they meet, 
20 A judge of songs or a generous giver, 
Proud to be praised in presence of liegemen. 
Honored in lays till all is fled. 
Life and light together. Who lives for glory 
Holds under heaven the height of fame. 



2. BIBLICAL EPIC 

THE FALL OF MAN 

(Younger Genesis, lines 246-764) 

The Ruler of hosts, in the realms of heaven, {^46) 
By the strength of his arm established on high 
Ten angel tribes: he trusted them well 
To serve their leader and loyally work 
5 The will of God, who gave them their reason, 
Whose hand had shaped them, their Holy Lord. 
He dowered them all with wealth; but one He made 

so great. 
Such wisdom He gave him of mind, such might to 

wield. 
In heaven he was next to God ; so glorious He made 

him, 
10 So gleaming his hue on high, that he had from his 

maker. 
He was like unto shining stars. His lord he was 

bound to serve, 
Hold dear the bliss of heaven ; he was bound to thank 

his lord 
For the bounteous gift of light that so long He let 

him enjoy. 
But he turned it all to evil, and openly stirred up strife 
15 Gainst Heaven's highest Ruler, who sitteth on His 

holy throne. 

78 



THE FALL OF MAN 79 

Dear had he been to our King, nor could it be kept 

from the Lord (^^i) 

That His angel proud, was plotting rebellion. 
He rose 'gainst his ruler, and railed against God. 
He uttered defiance, refused to serve Him; 
5 Said that his body was bright and gleaming. 
Wondrous and fair, nor would he further 
Give obedience to God in heaven. 
Or serve him longer. It seemed to himself 
That his power and might were more than God's, 
10 His followers firmer in fealty bound. 
Many things uttered the angel in pride; 
By the power of his single strength he planned 
To make for himself a mightier throne, 
A higher in heaven. His haughty mood 
15 Stirred him to build a stately hall 

And strong, in the north and west. He said he 

doubted 
Whether he further would follow God. 
"Why should I toil?" said he; 'T need acknowledge 
No man for my master ; I may with these hands 
20 Work marvels as many. Mine is the power 
To rear a throne more royal than His, 
A higher in heaven. Then why should I grovel to 

win His grace. 
Bow in obedience to Him, when I may be Highest 

myself ? 
Faithful followers back me, unfailing in battle ; 
25 Those hardy heroes have chosen me for their chief, 
Sturdy warriors ; with such 'tis well wars to plan, 
Battles to fight, with friends like these, faithful and 

true. 
Loyal their hearts, their leader I'll be, 



8o OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Rule in this realm; not right I think it (^^P) 

To fawn upon God for favor and gifts. 

Henceforth his liegeman no longer am I !" 

When the Almighty heard this boast, 
5 How his angel on high with haughty lips 

Defiance uttered, and foolishly strove 

To rise against God, . . . He was wroth in His 
heart, (2p3) 

And cast him down from his seat on high, (300) 

Hurled him to hell ; from heaven banished, 
10 Down in those deeps he was changed to a devil. 

Thus fell the fiend with his followers all; 

Three days and nights they downward fell. 

Those angels of light the Lord did change 

To devils dark. For His deeds and words 
15 They failed to honor, wherefore the Lord 

Deprived them of light, and placed them, lost 

Deep under earth in darkest hell. 

There through the night immeasurably long. 

Fire unflagging they feel, each one; 
20 Then comes with the dawn an eastern wind, 

And bitter-cold frost, — ever fire or frost. 

Throes and hardship are theirs to endure. 

Banished from heaven. Their home was changed. 

Then first the hollow of hell was filled 
25 With fallen fiends. But the faithful angels 

Held the heights of heaven above. 

While the fiends below in fire lay. 

The foes who in folly fought against God. 

They have their reward in the womb of hell, 
30 Blaze and broad flames, and bitter smoke, 



THE FALL OF MAN 8i 

Glare and gloom. Beguiled by their pride 

The service of God they despised and forgot. . (326) 

Then spoke the insolent foe who once was fairest of 
angels, ^ (338) 

Most dazzling in heaven, and dear to his lord ; 
5 Within him sorrow seethed round his heart; (j5j) 

Without was the reek of the rolling flames, 

The welter of fire — such words he spake ; 

"This narrow place is nothing like 

That other world that once we knew, 
10 Where high in heaven our homes were set 

Though God who gave, would not grant us to hold 
them. 

Rule our realm. Unrighteous his deed. 

To hurl us flying to this flaming pit. 

And the heat of hell, from heaven cut off! 
15 He hath planned to establish man in our place! 

This is the sorest of all my sorrows, 

That Adam should, who was shaped of earth. 

For aye possess my stronghold there, 

And live in bliss while we must endure 
20 This brunt of wrath. Ah welaway! 

If but my hands were free ; if but an hour I had, 

One winter's hour, then would I with this band — ! 

But iron bonds are all about me, 

The rough chain rides me hard ; realmless I am. 
25 Hell's strong clutches clamp me down. 

Pin me fast, a prey to the flames. 

Over and under me endless fire. 

I have never looked on a loathlier sight, 

Quenchless blaze that quickens ever. 
30 Cables tough, and torturing chains 



82 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Hold me here; my hands are shackled, (379) 

My feet are fettered ; fast I am bound ; 
I may not pass the portals of hell, 
Loose my limbs from the links that hold them, 
5 Hammered hard, of iron hot, 
Bars and bolts. Thereby hath God 
Gripped my neck. I know from this. 
That the Lord of men my mind did mark; 
Saw that Adam and I should quarrel 
lo O'er heaven's realm, if my hands were free. 

But now we endure the throes of hell, darkness and 

heat, 
Grim and bottomless. God Himself 
Hath swept us into swarthy gloom, though guiltless 

of sin! 
No wrong we did in his realm, yet robbed He us all 

of light; 
15 Cast us into cruellest woe! now may we wreak our 

wrongs. 
Pay him reward of hate ; because he reft us of light. 
He hath marked a place called midgard, where man 

He hath wrought 
After His likeness. He looks to replace us 
In heaven with spotless souls ! Now seek we earnestly 
20 How on Adam and all his offspring. 

Our wrongs we may right, and wreak our vengeance, 
If haply we may beguile him to go astray from God. 
I have no hope of the light that He will long enjoy ; 
Of the bliss that is His forever, 'mongst angel-hosts 

in heaven. 
25 Nor may we hope to soften the heart of God Al- 
mighty. 



THE FALL OF MAN 83 

Then keep we that kingdom from man since we may 

come to it never; (404) 

Tempt them to break His word, and turn from the 

will of their Maker. 
Thus shall His wrath be kindled, to cast them away 

forever. 
Then shall they seek this hell, sink to these gulfs of 

horror ; 
5 And we shall hold them in chains, these children of 

men our vassals. 
Think of this deed, ye thanes of mine! 
If any there be, whom erst I favored 
With gifts of price, in that goodly kingdom, 
Where happy we lived and held our realm, 
10 No fitter time he could find, to return 
The bounty I dealt, no better way. 
Than if now he were willing at need to escape; 
Break through these bars, by boldness and cunning; 
On feathery pinions fly through the air, 
15 Wheeling aloft till he light on the spot 

Where Adam and Eve on earth are standing. 
With bounty blessed, while banished we are 
To the dark abyss. They are dearer than we 
To Heaven's Lord ; they live in joy, 
20 They have the wealth that once was ours, 

Our realm and our right ! This rueth me sore. 
That they shall in heaven be happy forever ! 
If any of you may alter their state. 
And make them transgress the command of God, 
25 I shall lie at ease in my links of iron. (433) 

Who gaineth me this shall get his reward, 



84 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The best I can give in the bounds of this fire : 

He shall sit with myself, who comes to say (43S) 

They have broken the law of the Lord of heaven." 

Then girded himself a foe of God 

With trappings of war, on treachery bent ; 

Set helmet on head, and hardily clasped it; 

Firmly fastened it down. He was fluent of speech, 

A master of guile. He mounted aloft. 

Swung through hell's door, the hardy adventurer, 

10 Wheeling through mid-air, on mischief bent. 
Cleaving the flames with his fiendish skill. 
He hoped to deceive the servants of God ; 
Trick them with lies and lead them astray; 
Tempt them to rouse the wrath of God. 

15 Onward he flew, with fiendish skill 

And came where Adam on earth was standing. 
The work of God's hand, wondrously made; 
And with him his wife, of women the fairest. (457) 
Near by stood two stately trees, (4^o) 

20 Laden all over with largess of fruit, 
Bearing their bounty, as bidden by God, 
Heaven's high King, whose hand had set them 
For the children of men, to make their choice 
Of good and of evil; for each must choose 

25 'Twixt weal and woe. Unlike was their fruit: 
One was beautiful, bright and shining. 
Delightful to look on ; that was life's tree. 
Who tasted its fruit, should flourish forever ; 
Life everlasting his lot should be. 

30 Age might not injure nor dread disease. 
His days should pass in pleasure unending, 



THE FALL OF MAN 85 

High in the favor of heaven's King. {474) 

And rich reward awaits him hereafter, 
In heaven above when hence he departs. 

The second tree all swart uptowered, 
5 Dark and dismal : that was Death's tree. 

Bitter the fruit it bore unto men ! 

Both good and evil should each man know. 

Who tasted the fruit of that fatal tree, 

His life should wane and wither away 
10 In sorrow and trouble, in sweat and in toil. 

Age would strip him of strength and vigor, 

Gladness and glory ; his goal is death. 

A little while he lingers on earth, 

But soon goes down to the darkest of lands, 
15 To serve the fiends in fire and woe, 

Hugest of tortures. The tempter knew it, 

The sneaking spy with his spite against God. 

In the shape of a serpent, he soon was coiled 

Round the tree of death, through his devil's craft. 
20 He took of the fruit, and turned to find 

The handiwork of heaven's King. 

With lying words, the loathly fiend 

Came toward the man, and questioned him there: 

"Hast thou any longing Adam, up to God ? 
25 I have on his errand hither fared from far. 

'Twas not long since, that I sat with God himself. 

He bade me come and tell thee to take of this fruit. 

I heard him approve thy words and deeds, (507) 

Praise thy life, in His light above. 
30 Obey the behest that His herald brings ! 



86 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Boundless stretch earth's broad green plains. (510) 
God sitteth on high, in heaven enthroned, 
Nor deigns Himself to suffer the toil 
Of this journey long. So the Lord of hosts 
5 His herald doth send, to speak His will. 
He bids thee heed and obey His words. 
Stretch forth thy hand, and hold this fruit; 
Take it and taste it ; thy heart will expand. 
Thy body grow brighter ; thy bounteous Lord 
10 Sends thee this help from heaven above." 

Adam answered, where on earth he stood, 
God's handiwork : "When I heard the Lord, 
The King of heaven, call me aloud. 
With stern voice bid me stand on earth, 

15 And obey His will, — when He brought me this 
woman, 
This winsome bride, and bid me beware 
Lest the tree of Death should darkly deceive me. 
And betray me to woe. He warned me that hell 
Should hold him ever, within whose heart 

20 Evil was lurking. . . . Unlike thou seemest (531) 
To any angel that ever I saw! (53^) 

Nor dost thou offer me any token. 
That truly from heaven thou hither art sent. 
Come from the Lord. I cannot obey thee! 

25 But take thyself off ! My trust is in God, 

My faith is in Him whose hands did fashion me. 
That He may grant me each gift from on high. 
Without sending His servant to speak in His place." 
Then wrath fully turned the tempter away; 

30 Went where he saw the woman standing, 



THE FALL OF MAN 87 

Winsome and fair. The words he spake (549) 

Brought woe to the world, and worst of pangs 
To all her offspring, in after years : 
"I know ye will rouse the wrath of God, 
5 When I tell him myself, returned from the journey, 
The long hard way, that ye would not listen, 
Nor heed the message that hither He sent, 
Far from the east. He shall fare Himself 
To make you His answer; no messenger then 

10 His word will bear, for I wot He will kindle 
His anger against you. But if thou, woman, 
A willing ear to my words shalt lend. 
His vengeance yet thou mayest avert. 
Bethink thee. Eve, that through thy wit 

15 Ye both may be saved from bitter woe! 
Eat of the fruit, and thine eyes shall be light! 
Far and wide o'er the world thou shalt look, 
God himself thou shalt see on His throne. 
And the favor of Heaven shalt have forever. 

20 Also, dear Eve, thou may'st alter the mind 

Of Adam thy husband, if thou have his goodwill. 
And he trust thy words, when the truth thou reveal- 

est: 
How glad was thy heart when God's behest 
Thou promptly didst heed : mayhap he will leave 

25 His stubborn mood, and silence the answer 
Of wrath in his bosom, if both of us now 
Urge him together. Now earnestly ply him 
To do thy bidding, lest both of ye fall 
Into God's disfavor, and get you His wrath! 

30 If this thou fulfillest, O fairest of women, 

I shall hide from your Lord the harsh words of Adam, 



88 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The insults thy husband did heap upon me, (5^0) 
When he challenged my honor, charged me with 

falsehood 
Said I was evil, no angel of God. 
Yet well do I know all the ways of the angels, 
5 The heavenly mansions. This many a year 
With loyal heart my lord I have followed. 
And rendered to God, the Ruler of Heaven, 
My dutiful service ; no devil am I !" 

So he led with his lies, and lured with his wiles 

lo The woman to wrong; till the will of the serpent 
Worked in her bosom; (the weaker mind 
God had given her. ) She began to listen 
And lean to his lore. At last she took 
From the tempter the fruit of the fatal tree, 

15 Against God's word. No worse deed ever 
For man was done. 'Twas marvel great 
That the Lord everlasting allowed it to happen. 
Permitted so many men upon earth 
By lying lore to be led astray. 

20 She tasted the fruit and turned from God, 

From His word and will. Then wide was her vision 
By the gift of the fiend, who beguiled her with lies, 
And darkly betrayed her; his doing it was 
That heaven and earth more white did seem, 

25 And all the world more wondrous fair, 
More glorious-great the works of God. 
(She beheld them not by human power. 
But the fiend had falsely feigned it before her; 
Her sight deceived her, when she seemed to look 

30 So far abroad.) The fiend now spoke, 



THE FALL OF MAN 89 

The tempter-foe, — his tale nought profited: (^J"0) 
"Now thou may St see, I need not tell thee, 
How altered thy form, O fairest Eve, 
How beauteous thy body, since obeying my words, 
5 And heeding my lore. Now light shines about thee, 
Glorious and bright. I brought it from God, 
So fair from Heaven, thou mayst feel it and touch it. 
Reveal to Adam this vision of brightness, 
Vouchsafed by me. If with simple mind 

10 He agree to my wish, I will give him his fill 
Of the glorious light I gave to thee, 
Nor store up his insolent speeches against him, 
Though scarce he deserve so swift a pardon. 
Nor shall his children be charged with his fault, 

15 Banished from heaven for his misdoing; 

Their life shall be happy, though he hath done wrong." 

Then went to Adam of women the fairest, 
The winsomest wife the world ever saw, 
(Though comely her form, as she came from God's 
hand 

20 Yet was she undone by darkest wiles 

And won by lies), these words she spake: (^30) 

"Adam my lord, this fruit is so sweet, (^55) 

So blithe in my breast, so bright this herald, 
This angel of God so good and fair, 

25 By his trappings I see he is sent from above. 
'Tis wiser for us to win his favor 
Than set him against us by surly words. 
If today thou hast uttered aught that was harsh, 
He yet will forgive, if he get our obedience. 

30 What profits this strife with the spokesman of God, 
Thy Lord and Master? We need his good-will, 



90 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

For he may commend us to our Maker in heaven, 
Our Ruler on high. From here I can see (666) 

Where He sits himself, — 'tis south and east — 
Enwound with glory, the world's Creator. 
5 I behold his angels hovering about Him 
In winged robes, a radiant host 
And choir glad. Whence cometh this vision. 
If God Himself vouchsafed it not to us, 
The King of heaven ? I can hear afar, 

lo And look abroad o'er the bright creation. 
Joyful harping I hear in heaven! 
Filled is my soul, and flooded with light. 
Since first I took and tasted this fruit. 
Here in my hand, dear husband, I bring it; 

15 Gladly I give it; from God it hath come, 
I firmly believe, as his faithful angel 
Hath told us it came, in truthful words. 
Nought else was ever on earth like this ; 
'Tis sent by God as his spokesman declares." 

20 Sore she beset him, and spurred him all day 
To the deed of darkness; drove him to break 
The will of their Lord. The loathly fiend 
Stood near by, and subtly the while 
Incited their spirits to sin and shame. . . . (68/) 

25 Long she urged him, till Adam at last (70§) 

Goaded by Eve, began to yield ; 
His mind was turned, he trusted too much 
The winning words that the woman spake. 
Yet did she it all in duty and love, 

30 Nor weened what woe, what wailing and sorrow 
Should come to mankind, because she had hearkened 



THE FALL OF MAN 91 

To the voice of the devil. She deemed she was win- 
ning {yi2) 

God's goodwill, by giving her husband 

The fruit to taste, and turning his mind 

By winsome words, her wish to perform. 
5 Death and the grave he got from the woman, 

Though it had not that name, — 'twas known as the 
fruit 

Yet the devil's seduction meant death's long sleep, 

Doom of hell and downfall of heroes. 

Undoing of man and mortal woe, 
10 Because they ate of that cursed fruit. 

As soon as the evil one saw it was done. 

He laughed aloud, and leapt for joy. 

For the fall of them both, the bitter foe 

Gave thanks to his lord, that loathly thane ! 
15 "Now have I got me thy grace and favor. 

Worked thy will, and won my reward. 

Man is betrayed for many a day; 

Adam and Eve forever have lost 

The love of their Lord, for leaving His word, 
20 His law and command. No more they shall hold 

The kingdom of heaven : to hell they shall go. 

They shall make the dark journey; no more thy sor- 
row 

Bear in thy breast, where bound thou liest ; 

Nor mourn in thy mind, that men shall inherit 
25 The heights of heaven, the while we endure 

Labor and throes in a land of gloom. 

Because of thy pride, our cohorts fell. 

Hurled from the towering halls of heaven. 



92 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Goodly abodes. For God was wroth {74o) 

Because we refused to fawn with his followers, 
Bow our heads in obeisance to Him. 
Therefore the Ruler was wroth in His heart, 
5 Hurled us to hell, in the heat of His anger ; 
Flung to the flames the flower of His host. 
And then with His hands, in heaven He raised 
New seats of glory, and gave them to man. 
Blithe be thy mood, and merry thy breast ! 

lo Double damage today is wrought! 
This brood of man hath missed forever 
The glory of heaven, — they go their way 
To the flames and thee. And God Himself 
Is made to suffer sorrow and loss. 

15 On Adam's head 'tis all repaid, 

With hate of his Lord and heroes' downfall, 
Mortal throes of men upon earth. 
Healed is my hurt, my heart expands. 
Wreaked are all our ancient wrongs, 

20 The lingering woe we long endured ! 
Back I'll haste to the blaze of hell, 
Satan to seek, struck into chains." 
Netherward bent his way that boder of evil, 
Stooped to the gulfs of hell and the far-flung flames. 



THE DROWNING OF THE EGYPTIANS 

{Exodus, lines 447-515) 

25 The host was harrowed with horror of drowning ; 
Sea-death menaced their miserable souls. 
The slopes of the hill-sides were splashed with blood. 



THE DROWNING OF THE EGYPTIANS 93 

There was woe on the waters, the waves spat gore; 

They were full of weapons, and frothed with slaugh- 
ter. (4^1) 

Back were beaten the bold Egyptians, 

Fled in fear; they were filled with terror. 
5 Headlong they hastened their homes to seek. 

Less bold were their boasts as the billows rolled o'er 
them, 

Dread welter of waves. Not one of that army 

Went again home, but Wyrd from behind 

Barred with billows their backward path. 
10 Where ways had lain, now weltered the sea. 

The swelling flood. The storm went up 

High to the heavens; hugest of uproars 

Darkened the sky; the dying shrieked 

With voices doomed. The deep streamed with blood. 
1 5 Shield-walls were shattered by shock of the tempest. 

Greatest of sea-deaths engulfed the mighty, 

Captains and troops. Retreat was cut off 

At the ocean's brink. Their battle-shields gleamed 

High o'er their heads as the heaped-up waters 
20 Compassed them round, the raging flood. 

Doomed was the host, by death hemmed in. 

Suddenly trapped. The salty billows 

Swept with their swirling the sand from their feet 

As the ocean cold to its ancient bed, 
25 Through winding channels the churning flood. 

Came rolling back o'er the rippled bottom. 

Swift avenger, naked and wild. 

With slaughter was streaked the storm-dark air; 

The bursting deep with blood-terror yawned, 
30 When He who made it, by Moses' hand 



94 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Unbitted the wrath of the raging flood; (4^o) 

Wide it came sweeping to swallow the foe; 
Foamed the waters, the fated sank; 
Earth was o'erwhelmed, the air was darkened; 
5 Burst the wave-walls, the bulwarks tumbled; 

The sea-towers melted, when the Mighty One smote 
The pride of the host, through the pillar of fire, 
With holy hand from heaven above. 
The onslaught wild of the angry main 

10 None might oppose. He appointed their end 
In the roaring horror. Wroth was the sea : 
Up it rose, down it smote, dealing destruction. 
Slaughter-blood spread, the sea-wall fell, 
Upreared on high, the handiwork of God, 

15 When the ocean He smote with His ancient sword. 
Felled the defence of the foam-breasted waves. 
With that death-blow deep, the doomed men slept. 
The army of sinners their souls gave up. 
The sea-pale host, ensnared and surrounded, 

20 When the dark upheaval o'erwhelmed them all, 
Hugest of wild waves. The host sank down, 
Pharaoh and his folk, the flower of Egypt 
Utterly perished. The enemy of God 
Soon discovered, when the sea he entered, 

25 That the ocean's master was mightier than he. 
By the strength of His arm He decided the battle, 
Wrathful and grim. He gave the Egyptians 
Thorough reward for that day's work. 
Not one of that host to his home came back; 

30 Of all those warriors not one returned 
To bring the news of the battle's end, 
To tell in the towns the tidings of woe. 



ELENE 95 

Their husband's doom to the heroes' wives, (5-f-f ) 
How sea-death swallowed the stately host 
No messenger left. The Lord Almighty 
Confounded their boasting; they fought against God. 

3. SAINTS' LEGENDS 
ELENE 



Constantine's Vision of the Cross 

5 In the circle of years, in the span of time, (/) 

Two hundred and three and thirty winters 
Had passed o'er the world, since the Prince of glory, 
The Lord Almighty, and Light of the faithful. 
Was born on earth in the image of man. 

10 Constantine's reign had run six years 
Since he, a hero, on high was raised 
To rule o'er the Roman realm afar; 
Shield-bearer strong, he sheltered his people, 
Ruled in righteousness, rendered justice, 

15 Defended his folk from foemen's attack, 
Spread abroad the bounds of his realm. 
And God was with him and gave him strength, 
Glory and might. To many on earth 
The king became a comfort and help, 

20 An avenger in war, when his weapons he raised, 
And fell on the foe that frighted his land. 

Now the king was threatened with thunder of battle; 
Hordes of Huns their hosts assembled. 



96 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Hiigas and Hrethgoths harnessed for war; {20) 

Fierce-hearted Franks were faring against him. 
Their lances gHttered, their Hnked mail ; 
Mid shouts of battle and beating of shields 
5 Their banners they raised, and banded together. 
They massed their ranks and marched to war. 
The wolf of the weald his war-song chanted, 
Howled his death-rune. Hoarsely screamed 
The wet-winged eagle o'er the wake of the foe. 

10 Straight through the strongholds strode the invaders. 
The mighty host, as many in number. 
As the king of the Huns could call to his standards, 
From hearth and from hall. The horde pressed for- 
ward; 
With well-tried warriors, as they went along, 

15 They swelled their ranks, and soon arrived 
In a country strange, those spearmen bold. 
Prepared for battle, they pitched their tents 
On the Danube's strand. By the stream arose 
The hue and roar of the host tumultuous. 

20 They would threaten the realm of Rome with their 
throngs. 
Plunder its towns. The approach of the Huns 
Was published abroad in the burgs of the people. 
Then Caesar sent, and summoned his army 
To gather in haste against the foe; 

25 Commanded his men to muster for battle. 
With bow and arrow to arm for war. 

Soon were the Romans ready for combat. 
The victory-famed, though fewer in numbers 
Than the hordes that had come with the king of the 
Huns. 



ELENE 97 

They rode round their ruler; their raised shields 

clanged, (^o) 

Their battle-boards rang. Above them the raven 
Scenting the slaughter, circled and cried. 
The king rode ahead. The host was advancing; 
5 Heralds shouted, horses trampled. 

Trumpets brayed, the troop marched on, 
Swift to the combat; the king was adread, 
Stricken with fear, when he saw that host 
Of Huns outlandish and Hrethgoths wild, 

10 Gathered all, at the end of his realm, 
By the water's edge, and armed for war, 
A countless host. His heart was troubled; 
The ruler of Rome of his realm despaired. 
For lack of fighters; too few his warriors 

15 To support him in arms 'gainst the overmight 
Of the ruthless foe. The Romans encamped. 
The earls round their lord, at the edge of the stream. 
As night came on, and near the spot 
Where first they had faced their foe's advance. 

20 To Caesar himself, as in slumber he lay. 
By his host surrounded, and wrapt in sleep. 
To the victory-famed, a vision appeared. 
A shining figure in shape of a man. 
Gleamed before him, more fair and glorious 

25 Than any warrior that early or late 

He had seen 'neath the sun. He started up. 
And donned his helmet. The herald addressed him. 
Greeted him gladly; the glorious shape 
Named him by name, — the night was gone : 

30 ''Constantinus ; the king of angels 



98 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The Wielder of all, his aid and alliance (80) 

Bids me offer thee. Be not afraid, 
Though alien hordes o'erawe thee with terror 
Of hateful war. To heaven look up, 
5 Whence comfort shall come, from the King of Glory, 
And a victory-sign be revealed to thee !" 

His eager heart answered the angel's behest; 

He gazed to heaven as the herald had bidden. 

Streaming with splendor, in the sky he beheld 
10 The tree of glory, o'ertopping the clouds. 

With gold adorned and with gleaming jewels; 

In letters of light on the lustrous beam. 

Shining was writ : "In this sign thou shalt conquer. 

Defeat thy foe in the fearful battle, 
15 The loathsome host." The light departed, 

And with it the angel went up to heaven. 

To the home of the pure. The prince of men 

Was happy in heart, and healed of his sorrow 

By that vision fair of the victory-tree. 



II 

The Victory of Constantine 

20 Now Constantine the king renowned. 
The lord of bounty, and leader of armies. 
Shelter of earls, gave orders to make 
A standard shaped like the shining token. 
The sign he had seen in the skies revealed, 

25 The cross of Christ. With the coming of dawn. 
At break of day he bade them rouse. 



ELENE 99 

His warriors stir to the storm of battle, (io6) 

Raise their banners and bear before them 
The beacon of God against the foe. 
War trumpets blew as they went to the combat, 
5 Leading the ranks. The raven was glad. 
The dewy-winged eagle eagerly watched 
The warriors go. The gray-wolf howled. 
The beast of the holt. Then came battle-terror, 
The clash of hordes, the crash of boards, 

10 Heavy smiting, hand-to-hand fighting. 

When first they stood in the storm of the arrows 
That the battle-grim haters hurled at their foe : 
Showers of shafts o'er the shields of the doomed, 
Sharp-tongued arrows, adders of war, 

15 By the strength of their sinews they sent them hissing.. 
But steadily strode the stout-hearted on. 
Broke the shield-hedge, buried their swords 
In the breasts of their foes and bravely advanced. 
Where the standard was shown there were shouts of 
victory. 

20 Golden helmet and glittering spear 

Flashed o'er the field where fell the pagans; 
The hordes of the Huns, the heathen armies. 
Fled in haste when the holy sign 
Was raised at the call of the Roman king. 

25 Far and wide the foe was scattered 
Some had fallen on the field of battle; 
Some had scarcely saved their lives 
By sudden flight. Some took refuge 
In deserts wild, more dead than living, 

30 And hid in caves, or crawled to the banks 



100 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Of the Danube stream. Some were drowned: {136) 
In the rushing, flood they found their end. 
Then the band of the brave was joyful; 
From early dawn till evening light 
5 The host of the Hun they hotly pursued, 
Hurled their ash-spears, adders of war, 
Fast diminished the foeman's might; 
Few of the fiends e'er found their home. 
'Twas clear to them all that Constantine 
10 Was conqueror crowned by the King of Glory; 
In that day's work he was worthy deemed 
To win renown through the wondrous cross. (147) 



III 

The Quest of the Cross By Elene 

In the heart of the prince was praise of Christ (212) 
From that time forth. The thought of the cross 

15 He bore in his mind, and bade his mother 
Fare abroad with a band of followers. 
With her liegemen go to the land of the Jews 
And seek the spot where the sign of glory. 
The holy beacon was buried in earth, 

20 The rood of the Lord. Not loath was Elene 
To go on the quest as the king had bidden; 
She was glad to obey her giver of bounty, 
Her own dear son. Soon she was ready; 
Heeding the words of the warden of hosts, 

25 The woman prepared for the welcome voyage. 
Bands of earls set out for the shore. 
Went in haste where harnessed stood. 



ELENE loi 

By the water's edge, the ocean-steeds, (^^7) 

Sea-stalHons fettered, afloat on the waves. 

Elene's purpose to all was plain 

When she turned with her train to the tossing sea. 
5 Goodly warriors were gathered in plenty 

By the wave- wet strand of the Wendel-sea, 

Troop after troop, o'er the trails they hastened ; 

The steeds of the sea were swiftly loaded 

With shield and shaft and shining corslet, 
10 With man and maid, and mailed warriors. 

They drove o'er the flood their foam-flecked coursers, 

Their tall wave-tramplers, o'er the trails of the deep. 

The tumbling seas in that tumult wild 

Oft broke on board, and all about 
15 Was the noise of waters. I have never heard 

Of a queen that sailed with a comlier fleet 

Out o'er the ways of the ocean-stream. 

There might one watch the waves at the bows 

As they breasted the billows, break into foam. 
20 Under swelling sails the swift ships ran. 

The wave-skimmers plunged. The warriors were 
proud ; 

Keen was their courage. The queen rejoiced. 

So came to the roads the ring-stemmed keels, 

In the land of the Greeks. They left their ships, 
25 Tossed by the tide, their tight sea-homes. 

Fast at anchor, afloat in the bay, 

To await their errand's issue there, 

When the queen with her train should return once 
more. 

And seek them out o'er the eastern ways. 



I02 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

There earls were seen in armor clad, 
With choicest swords, and chain-linked mail, (^5/) 
With helmet visored, and haughty boar-crest. 
With breast-plates burnished. About their queen 
5 Ash-spear in hand, the earls were ranged. 
Eager to march. On they fared, 
Those heroes hardy in harness of war. 
Liegemen of Caesar, to the land of the Greeks. 
Their ranks were rich with radiant jewels, 

lo Gold-set gems, the gift of their lord. 
Elene the queen ever was faithful. 
Kept in mind the command of the king, 
Eager in soul to seek with her train, 
Her war-troop chosen of well-tried spearmen, 

15 The land of the Jews o'er the level plains. 
Erelong it fell, in a little while, 
The hardy band of heroes bold 
Arrived at the gates of Jerusalem. 
Entered the city that armed troop 

20 Of earls renowned with their noble queen. (^75) 

Arrived in Jerusalem Elene questions the wise men of Judea con- 
cerning the crucifixion. They all profess ignorance. One of them, 
Judas by name, is delivered over to her as a hostage. He knows 
the history of the cross but refuses to divulge it. Thrown into a pit 
and threatened with starvation, he suffers a change of heart and 
leads the queen to Mt. Calvary. Here he falls on his knees and 
prays that God may reveal to him where the cross is buried by let- 
ting a smoke arise from the spot. 

X 

The Discovery of the Cross 
Then from the mount a mist arose (802) 

Like a smoke to the skies. His spirit within him 



ELENE 103 

Was quickened with comfort. He clapped his hands 
On high toward heaven in holy rapture. (^Oj) 

Then Judas spoke in joyous mood : 
"Now do I know, — I deny it no longer — 
5 That Thou in sooth art the Saviour of men. 
Thanks eternal be to Thee, O Lord, 
Ruler of hosts, that reignest in glory, 
That Thou in Thy might hast made me to know. 
Though hard was my heart. Thy hidden ways." (812) 

10 Eager and glad he began to delve (82/) 

In willing trust for the tree of glory 
'Neath the cover of turf, 'till twenty feet down 
Buried deep in darkness of earth 
Crosses three he came upon; 

15 Concealed they lay 'neath a lid of rock 

In their gloomy fastness. He found them together 
Covered with sand where the sinful Jews 
Had left and forgotten them, long ago: 
The souls unrighteous on the Son of God 

20 Had showered their hate as they should not have done, 
Had the plotter of evil not prompted their hearts 
His lore to obey. Blithe was Judas, 
The mind of the man was moved with joy, 
His soul was inspired by the sight of the tree, 

25 The sacred sign he saw in the earth; 

He clasped with his hands the cross of glory. 
And moved it amain from its mouldering grave. 

Now all the earls went in to the city. 
Carrying proudly the crosses three. 
30 They set them up in sight of the queen. 



104 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Those earls renowned. The noble Elene {^4^) 

Kneeling before them, was filled with joy, 
And wished to know on which of the three 
The Hope of heroes had hanged been. 
5 "Lo, we have heard from holy books 
A tale of truth that twain with Him 
Suffered the throes. Himself the third. 
High on the rood; the heavens darkened 
In that terrible hour. Tell if thou canst 

lo On which of the crosses the King of glory 
And Lord of angels in agony hung." 
But Judas could not clearly tell, 
('Twas not revealed) the victory-tree 
On which the Lord was lifted high, 

15 The Son of God. He gave command 
With sound of singing to set up the trees 
In the city's midst, to remain in sight 
'Till God before men a marvel should work. 
And the might of the rood make manifest. 

20 So they gathered around and raised their song, 
Watching with care the crosses three, 
'Till the ninth hour brought them a new delight, 
A marvellous thing. A multitude came, 
A crowd of folk, carrying one dead; 

25 Borne on a bier they brought him nigh, 
A youth he seemed, his soul had fled. 
Then Judas rejoiced, ('twas just the ninth hour) 
His heart within him was eager with hope; 
He bade them lay the lifeless corpse, 

30 The dead man's body, down on the earth. 
And hold aloft o'er that house deserted 
Two of the crosses. Then the counsellor wise. 



ELENE 105 

The right decider, studied deeply (880) 

The motionless corpse ; it remained as before : 
Lifeless it lay, the limbs were cold 
Locked in death. Then they lifted on high 
5 The third of the crosses. The corpse lay still 
Till above it was raised the rood of triumph. 
The very cross of the King of heaven, 
The victory-sign. Then sudden it rose 
Endowed with spirit; soul and body 
10 Were joined together. Great was their joy, 
Fain was that folk the Father to praise ; 
And with Him the Son they worshipped aloud. 
With words of thanksgiving. Glory to Him, 
World without end from every creature. (^Pj) 



XII 

The Building of the Temple of the Holy Rood 

The marvellous story was soon made known; (p^/) 

It flew o'er the folkways far and near. 

The tidings sped o'er city and town 

And sea-girt shore. Shame was brought. 

Confusion on all who fain would darken 

20 The counsel of God. The glad news spread 

That the cross of Christ, long covered with earth. 
Was found again, most glorious token 
Of triumph raised 'neath the roof of heaven 
In the tide of time. To the tribe of the Jews 

25 'Twas the bitterest fate, to that folk unblest 
A cruel grief, that the Christians' joy 
They might not quench. The queen commanded 



io6 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

That heralds should haste from her host of earls, 
With eager speed o'er the ocean-stream, (p^^) 

To seek the ruler of the Roman folk, 
And bring to the brave the best of news, 
5 The joyful tidings that the token of victory 
By the favor of God was found at last, 
Buried in earth, where ages long 
Hidden it lay, a loss to saints 
And Christian folk. The king was glad, 

10 His soul was merry; his spirit rejoiced 
At the marvellous news; and many arrived. 
Richly arrayed, in the royal city 
To question the messengers come from afar. 
The warrior's dearest wish was fulfilled; 

15 With laughing heart he heard the news 

That his heralds brave had brought from the east : 
How safe and sound o'er the swan-road wide. 
The queen and her comrades had come ashore 
In the land of the Greeks. Their lord commanded 

20 They should hold themselves ready to hasten back 
Without delay. They lingered not 
When once they had learned the will of their lord, 
The ^Etheling's wish. He asked them to greet 
The lady Elene, liegemen brave, 

25 When across the sea they came again safe. 
Heroes haught, to the holy city. 
Constantine further counselled his heralds 
To bid their mistress build a church 
For the sake of them both, on the sacred mount; 

30 To rear on its top a temple of God, 
On Calvary high, in honor of Christ 
And heroes to help, where the Holy Rood 



GUTHLAC 107 

First was found, the fairest of trees {1012) 

Storied and sung by sons of men, 

O'er the ways of the world. His will she performed, 

When out of the west, from over the seas, 
5 Their welcome word her warriors brought. 

Then the queen commanded that men be sought. 

Craftsmen skilled, in stone-work cunning. 

The best to be found in that foreign land, 

And bade them build on the brow of the hill 
10 A temple of God, by the Guardian of spirits 

Guided from heaven. The Holy Rood 

She bade them cover with costly gold. 

Set it with gems and jewels precious. 

Secure in a shrine of silver encase it, 
15 And lock it safe. There since that day 

The cross of life hath lain unbroken. 

Rood triumphant and incorruptible. 

Solace unfailing in sore affliction. 

To all who suffer anguish or pain; 
20 By the holy sign they shall soon find help 

And grace from God. (10 J2) 



SAINT GUTHLAC 

(From Guthlac B.) 

The Temptation of Guthlac 

Oft were the fens by foul fiends haunted; (866) 

Hordes of demons, dark and menacing. 
Swarmed round the spot where the saint of God, 
25 Dauntless of courage, kept his abode. 
Filled was the air with uproar confused; 



io8 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Riotous battle-din raised in the wilderness (^7-f) 
The fiendish rout, bereft of all beauty, 
Sundered from joy. But the servant of God, 
Hero hardy, the hellish rabble 
5 Boldly defied. They fled for a space. 
Not long the delay; the loathly guests, 
The trouble-smiths, quickly the turmoil renewed 
With yelpings loud and long-drawn yells. 
At times they would bellow like beasts of prey, 

lo Or howl in troops; at times they would change 
Into human form, the fierce man-haters. 
With deafening clamor, or don the shape 
Of creeping serpents, those spirits accurst. 
Spewing venom, the vile deceivers. 

15 Yet Guthlac ever on guard they found; 
Watchful and wary, he waited in patience. 
Though the thronging demon-bands threatened to slay 
him. 

The fowls of the air would oft-times flutter 
About his board, made bold by hunger, 

20 Feed from his hand and fondly thank him 
With happy songs ; and sundry folk. 
Wayfarers meek, would make his abode 
Their journey's goal, and joyfully gain 
Healing and help at the hands of the saint, 

25 Soul and body restored by his blessing. (^95) 



The Death of Guthlac 

And now the end of his earthly toil, (904) 

Of his life of labor, at last drew near. 






GUTHLAC 109 

'Twas fifteen years since first he chose (908) 

In the desert wild his dwelHng to make, 
When a spirit holy from heaven descended, 
To call him hence. His heart within him 
5 Burned to depart; his bodily frame 
Was stricken sore with sudden fever; 
His joints were loosed, his limbs grew heavy; (p^/) 
Yet firm was his faith, though feeble his body. 
That God Almighty was minded to try him, 

10 His Maker kind. His courage he summoned. 
Nor feared in his heart the foe's temptations, 
Nor piercing of pain, nor pangs of anguish, 
Nor parting of death; but praise of the Lord 
Glowed in his breast, and burning love 

15 O'er all his ills triumphant rose. 

And conquered his pain. Nor prized he greatly 
This fleeting life, though the friendly house-mates, 
Body and soul, were soon to sever 
Their union dear. So the days sped on. 

20 Night-shadows fell. Near was the hour 
When he must endure the mortal doom. 
Death's sharp stroke, our destined lot. 
Earned by our elders in ancient days. (94^) 

A youthful disciple, his serving-thane, (97^) 

25 Dwelt near by, and daily came 

To visit his master. With mind devout 
And pious spirit, his steps he bent 
To the chapel wherein his chosen teacher. 
His master in wisdom, was wont to pray. 

30 Straight he entered, the saint to greet, 
And open his heart to the holy lore 



no OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Of the hermit mild. His mood was sad (pSo) 

When he found his master with fever stricken ; 
Deep in his bosom, the burden of grief 
Weighed on his soul, as he spoke these words : 
5 "My lord beloved, how liest thou here, 
Sick unto death, and sore afflicted. 
Friend and protector, my father dear! 
Never before have I found thee thus. 
Languid and prone; hast thou power of speech? 

10 Much do I fear a fever sudden 

In the still night-watches hath stolen upon thee. 
Sad is my spirit ; vouchsafe me comfort. 
Dost know what the end of this illness shall be?" 
The saint made answer with utterance feeble; 

15 He scarce drew breath, so baleful the stroke 
Of the burning fever; yet bravely rallied 
The man of God, and made reply : 
"I tell thee truly the touch of this evil 
In the dead of night hath darkly descended, 

20 Unlocked my life-hoard. My limbs grow heavy. 
Smitten with pain. My soul's habitation. 
The body frail, shall be folded in earth. 
My limbs shall be laid in their loamy bed. 
To sleep in peace. The slayer approacheth, 

25 Swift for his prey. When seven nights 

In the course of time shall have come and gone, 

fMy hours are spent, and my spirit shall pass : 
When the eighth day dawns, the end shall come." 

(lOIO) 
There was sound of mourning and sad lament ; ( 1020) 
V 30 The young thane's heart was heavy with grief 
When he had heard that the holy man 



GUTHLAC III 

Was about to depart. That bitter news {i02j) 

Of his lord beloved laid on his heart 
Its burden of sorrow. His spirit was darkened; 
The hot tears welled from his woe-brimmed heart. 

(1026) 
5 When the holy in spirit beheld his disciple (-^^Jj) 

With grief o'erwhelmed, and weeping sore, 
Glad and serene, he began to cheer 
His well-loved comrade with words of comfort: 
''Be not cast down! Though this dread disease 

10 Doth harass my body, not hard I find it 
Obedient to bow to the bidding of God. 
No terror of death doth trouble my spirit, 
In the hour of trial, with anxious thoughts. 
Still less do I dread the dark battalions 

15 Of the demons of hell. With deadly sin 
Their chief and leader may charge me never. 
With lust of the flesh. In the flame they suffer 
Scalding remorse; they mourn their loss, 
Their exile-journey, of joy bereft, 

20 Of love and delight, and the lot of the faithful, 
In death's dark hall. My dearest son, 
Refuse not my comfort, I fain would depart 
To my heavenly home, and have my reward 
In joy everlasting, the life of the blest, 

25 And see my Saviour, O son beloved. 
No hardship I hold it, nor heavy toil ; 
The giver of glory I go to seek, 
Gladness and peace and the presence of God, 
Whom singly I served, with steadfast mind 

30 Through all the days of this dreary life. 
With heart and soul; I surely shall find 



112 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

High in heaven where my hopes are set, (1060) 

Fair and unfading, my final reward. 
My spirit is fain to fly from the body 
Leave this land, to its long joy come, 
5 Abode of the blest. Not bitter to me 
What there shall befall; my faith is sure 
After body is broken comes bliss eternal." 
Stilled was the voice of the valiant saint, 
Prophet renowned; he had need of rest, 
10 Failing and faint. The fading twilight, 
Deepened to dusk, the dark night-watches 
Stalked o'er the earth and stole upon men. 

Now dawned the light of the day when the Lord, 

With breath of life to his body restored, 
15 Radiant and glorious arose from his grave, 

O'er earth triumphant, at Eastertide. 

A mighty host to heaven he raised. 

When his glory burst the gates of Hell. 

Filled with the hope of that happy festal, 
20 Day of rejoicing, the gentle saint 

The strength of his spirit summoned again. 

Firm was his faith, though feeble his body. 

Wasted and faint with the fever's rage. 

As best he could, from his bed he rose; 
25 His service he said in the sacred shrine. 

His holy office, with upright heart 

And deep devotion, he duly performed. 

Then as befits a faithful master, 

Straight he bethought him his thane to instruct 
30 In the word of God; by the gift of the spirit 

To teach him love of the life eternal, 



GUTHLAC 113 

Wonder and glory of the world of light. (lopo) 

Now seven days' time had sped o'er the earth (11 14) 
Since the flickering flight of fiery darts 
Had lodged in his side, and sought to unlock 
5 With crafty keys his casket of life. 
Again the disciple of Guthlac went forth 
In dutiful mood his master to seek. 
The saint outstretched in his cell he found, 
The pure in heart in the hallowed place, 

10 Wasted and weak awaiting his end. 

The day was at noon, his death was near ; 
His breath came slow as he spoke to his thane : 
. ( ''Now listen well to my last request, 
^ i^"* ^^1 My darling child, and do my bidding. 

af-'i^ When the breath of life has left my body, 
Z*^ J Haste to deliver my latest message. 
The long way take, to tell my sister 
Of my happy departure to heaven above. 
And joy eternal. Tell her also 

20 That here I refrained from beholding her face 
Through all these years of our earthly life, 
Because I wished that we should meet 
In heaven above, in bliss eternal, 
Before the face of the father of lights, 

25 United in love that shall never be broken. 
Sinless and stainless, possessing forever 
Our hearts' desire in the heavenly city, 
Midst brightest angels ; bid her also 
To lay in the grave my lifeless body 

30 Cover my limbs with loam of earth, 
Coffined in darkness to dwell for long. 



114 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Hold and inhabit the house of clay." (n^P) 

p il^ Troubled in thought, the thane replied: 

"By the grace of Him that guardeth our souls 
I implore thee to answer and ease my pain. 
5 Near is thy end, as I know by thy words. 
Often my heart has been heavy with sorrow; 
In the dark night-watches never I dared 
To question or call thee, my comforter dear. 
Often at eve, at the hour of twilight 

10 When the gleaming light of the glorious sun, 
Bright candle of day, declined in the west, 
With another I heard thee holding converse; 
I was 'ware of the voice of a visitor strange, 
'Twixt waning of day and dark of the night. 

15 And sometimes at dawn I seemed to hear. 
In the morning gray, a murmur of voices. 
My spirit was troubled : those strange communings 
Filled me with fear, and fain would I know. 
If thou, dear master, art minded to tell me, 

20 Who it may be and whence he hath come." 
In silence long the saint endured; 
At last he answered his loved disciple. 
With voice that faltered, and vanishing strength: 
"The thing thou askest, my thane beloved, 

25 I meant to tell to no mortal on earth; 

To thee alone at last I reveal it. (1204 

When the days of my sojourn, spent in the desert. 
Had lengthened to years, the Lord of victory 
Sent from heaven a holy spirit. 

30 Often at morn that messenger fair 

Like a conquerer came from the King of glory, 



GUTHLAC 115 

Or descended at eve, that angel of light, {121'/) 

And solace sweet to my solitude brought, 
Healing and hope and help in affliction. 
My mind he stored with manifold wisdom, 
5 Mysteries high. No mortal may know 
What hidden things that herald of God 
Revealed to my heart, nor have I leave 
To unseal the secret to soul alive." (1224) 

Then sank to the wall the weary saint, (^^43) 

10 And bowed his head. Yet brave was his spirit; 

Calmly he breathed. There came from his mouth 

A fragrance sweet, as in summer time 

The air is filled with odors rich 

From fields of honey -brimmed flowers abloom. 
15 So all day long, till evening fell. 

This breathed sweetness still uprose 

From the lips of the saint. When the lordly sun 

Had sought his bed, and black under clouds 

Of the northern skies the night came on, 
20 Folding in mist the face of the earth, 

Shrouding her beauty in shadows of gloom, 

A sudden brightness broke from the sky, 

A radiance holy, from heaven sent. 

Illumined the night. Beneath it lay 
25 In blessed mood the man of God, 

Awaiting his end. So all night long. 

Pure o'er the pure, the precious beam 

Brightly shone. The shadows black 

Were swept from the sky. The splendor shed 
30 Its holy light round the hut of the saint, 

From evening gloam, till glow of dawn 



ii6 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Brought up from the east, o'er ocean waves, (1266) 
The glorious sun. Then Guthlac rose 
In the strength of his spirit, and spoke to his thane, 
His comrade true: *'The time has come 
5 That thou must leave me. Bethink thee well 
Of all that I bid thee, and bring my message 
To the sister I love. My spirit yearns 
To flee from my body to the bliss of heaven." 
He lifted his hands, his heart refreshed 
10 By the sacrament holy, the soul's pure food. 
Opened his eyes, with ardor aglow. 
Heavenward gazed, and gave up his spirit 
Glad and rejoicing, in glory to dwell. 

Then Guthlac's soul was guided to heaven; 

15 Flights of angels upward bore it 

To bliss eternal. His body grew cold 
As it lay 'neath the sky. A light shone forth, 
Brightest of beams ; like a beacon it marked 
The cell of the saint; the sacred glow 

20 Up from the floor, like a flaming tower. 
Straight arose to the roof of heaven. 
More fair it showed than the shining sun. 
Clear as star-light. Choirs angelic 
Jubilant sang. The joyous strains 

25 Of their heavenly song fell soft on the ear. 
And all the space within was filled 
With odors sweet and air-borne music. 
And echoings far of angel voices. 
More wondrous-strange and winsome-fair 

30 Than tongue of man may tell on earth. 
And mightier now the melody swelling 



GUTHLAC 117 

Peal on peal, the plain o'erflowed (i2pp) 

And rocked the isle. I Then ran affrighted 
The comrade of Guthlac, till he came to his boat. 
Straight he embarked, and stricken with woe 
5 His wave-steed o'er the flood he urged. 

After sport on the billows the boat made land. 
Grated the shingle. But grief held sway 
In the heart of the thane as he thought in woe 
Of the master beloved he had left behind, 

10 His dearest friend, dead on the isle. 

His heart was wrung, and hot tears rolled 
Down o'er his cheek, as he chose his way. 
So he came at last where the lady was, 
The winsome maiden. Wyrd he hid not, 

15 The doomed man's death. A dirge he chanted, 
These words he spoke bewailing his friend : 
''Endurance is best in the blows of affliction, 
When the hour woven by Wyrd is come. 
My lord, thy brother, the best of men 

20 That ever was known in England's realm. 

The bulwark of friends and defense of the needy. 
Has gone to God from the gladness of life. 
To seek his heavenly home above. 
He told me to say that soon thou too 

25 Mayest join him there in joy eternal, 
And live in bliss. He bade thee also 
To lay in the grave his lifeless body. 
And cover his limbs with loam of earth. 
And now, dear maid, thou knowest my errand. 
Heavy with grief, I go from hence," 



11. Lyric Poetry 

1. RELIGIOUS LYRIC 

NORTHUMBRIAN HYMN 

Now hymn we aloud the Lord of Heaven, 
Praise His wisdom and wonderful power, 
The glorious works of the great Creator, 
How the Father Eternal founded this world. 
First He set for the sons of men, 
Heaven to roof them. The Holy Ruler, 
The King of mankind, then cast the foundations 
Of earth in the midst, and made thereafter 
Land for the living, the Lord Almighty. 



ii8 



CYNEWULF 119 



HYMN OF PRAISE 

(From The Crist, lines 348-377) 

Hail thou Holy One, Heaven's Ruler, 
Thou of old wert equal with the Father, 
God in the Highest, in Thy glorious home ! 
No angel was yet created in heaven, 
5 None of the mighty unnumbered host. 

That keep the realms of the kingdom on high. 
Worshipping God the Wielder of majesty. 
When Thou with the Father didst first establish 
The firm foundations of the far-spread world. 

10 Ye share alike the Spirit of Comfort, 

Enthroned on high. We therefore pray Thee 
With humble hearts, to help Thy servants. 
O Saviour Christ, we call to Thee 
To hear the cries of Thy captive people, 

15 Woe-entangled by wayward wills. 
Fettered fast by the fiends of hell, 
Cast into chains by the crew accursed. 
And held in bondage. Our hope is in Thee; 
Thou alone canst deliver Thy people. 

20 Help us miserable, by the might of Thy coming! 
Comfort us who suffer, and save us disconsolate. 
Though we have offended with our faults against 

Thee. 
Have mercy on Thy servants, remember our infirmi- 
ties, 



120 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

How we fail and falter with feeble hearts, 
How shamefully we all have erred from Thy ways. 
No longer delay, our Lord and Redeemer, 
Come and deliver us, O King of Thy people ! 
5 We need Thy grace, and the gift of Thy salvation, 
That henceforth more worthily we may worship Thy 

name. 
Walk in Thy ways, and Thy will perform. 



(From The Crist, lines 850-866) 

10 Our life is likest a long sea-voyage: 

O'er the water cold in our keels we glide. 
O'er Ocean-streams, in our stallions of the deep 
We drive afar. 'Tis a dreary waste 
Of ceaseless surges we sail across, 

15 In this wavering world, o'er wind-swept tracts 
Of open sea. Anxious the struggle. 
Ere we bring at last our barks to land. 
O'er the rough sea-ridges. Our rescue is near; 
The Son of God doth safely guide us, 

20 Helps us in to our harbor of refuge; 

Shows from the deck the sheltered waters, 
Where smoothly to anchor our ancient chargers, 
Hold with hawsers our horses of the deep. 
Then fix we our hope on that haven of safety 

25 That the Prince of Glory prepared for us all, 
The Ruler on high, when He rose to heaven. 



I 



CYNEWULF 121 

DOOMSDAY 

(From The Crist, lines 867-1006) 

Lo ! on a sudden, and all unlooked for, 
In the dead of the night, the day of the Lord 
5 Shall break tremendous on man and beast, 
O'erwhelming the world and the wide creation. 
As a ruthless robber, ranging at night, 
Who strides through the dark with stealthy pace, 
And suddenly springs on sleep-bound heroes, 
10 Greets with violence his victims unguarded. 

A mighty host on the mount of Sion 

Shall gather together, glad and rejoicing. 

The faithful of the Lord, they shall find their reward. 

With one accord from the quarters four, 
15 And uttermost ends of the earth at once. 
Glorious angels together shall blow 
Their shattering trumpets ; the trembling earth 
Shall shake and sink, as they sound together. 
Piercing strong to the starry track. 
20 Their music swells from the South and North, 

From East and from West, o'er the world's wide 

round. 
They wake from the dead to the day of judgment 
The children of men, with their challenge dread. 
Out of their ancient earth and mold, 
25 Forth from their sleep profound they wake them. 
Howling with fear, they shall huddle and flock, 
Moaning and groaning, aghast with terror, 
Bewailing the deeds that were done in the body. 



122 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Eye hath not seen a sight more awful, (^P^) 

To men shall appear no portent more dread : 
Sinners and saints in strange confusion, 
Mingled together shall mount from their graves, 
5 The bright and the black : for both shall arise. 
Some fair, some foul, as foreordained 
To different home, of devils or angels. 

From South and East o'er Sion's top, 
In sudden radiance the sun shall flame 

lo From the throne of God; more gleaming-bright, 
Than man may imagine, or mind conceive. 
Resplendent it shines, as the Son of God 
Dazzling breaks through the dome of heaven. 
Glorious appears the presence of Christ, 

1 5 The King as He comes, through the clouds in the East, 
Merciful and mild in mind, to his ow^n; 
But with altered mood of anger toward the wicked : 
Unlike His looks for the lost and the blest. . . . (pop) 

The greedy spirit of consuming flame (P7^) 

20 Shall leap o'er the land, and the lofty halls; 

With the terror of fire shall fill the world. 

The battle-thirsty flame shall blaze afar, 

Devouring the earth, and all therein. 

Strong-built walls shall split and crumble; 
25 Mountains shall melt, and the mighty cliffs 

That buttress the earth 'gainst battering waves, 

Bulwarks upreared 'gainst the rolling billows, 

Shall fall on a sudden. The sweep of the fire 

Shall leave no bird nor beast alive. 
30 The lurid flame shall leap along the world. 



CYNEWULF 123 

Like a raging warrior. Where the waters flowed 
In a bath of fire the fish shall be stifled; (9^5) 

Sundered from life, their struggles over; 
The monsters of the deep no more shall swim. 
5 Like molten wax the water shall bum. 

More marvels shall appear than mind may conceive, 
When tempest and whirlwind o'erwhelm the earth. 
And rocks are riven by the roaring blast. 
Men shall wail, they shall weep and lament, 

10 Groan aghast with grovelling fear. 

The smoke-dark flame o'er the sinful shall roll, 
The blaze shall consume their beakers of gold. 
All the ancient heirlooms of kings. 
The shrieks of the living shall shrill aloud 

15 Mid the crack of doom, their cry of fear. 

Their howl of despair, as they struggle to hide. 

No guilty wretch shall refuge find, 

Not one shall escape the scorching flame; 

On all it shall seize, as it sweeps through the world. 

20 It shall leap and run and ruthlessly bore 
In the bowels of the earth, it shall burn aloft. 
Till the ancient stains of earthly sin 
By the purging billows are burnt away. 



THE VISION OF THE CROSS 

(Ascribed to Cynewulf) 

List to the words of a wondrous vision, 
25 Dream that I dreamt in the dead of night, 
When stilled in sleep were the sons of men! 
Methought on a sudden I saw a cross 



124 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Upreared in the sky, and radiant with light. (5) 
Brightest of trees, that beauteous beacon 
Was dipped in gold, and bedight with jewels: 
Four at the base, and five on the beam 
5 Glistened on high; 'twas no gallows-tree. 
Emblem of shame, but the souls of the blest 
, Were gazing upon it, God's bright angels, 
The glorious creation, all kindreds of men. 
'Twas a tree of triumph; but troubled was I, 
10 Stained with sin, as I stood and gazed 
On the Cross of glory, aglow with light. 
Layers of gold, and glittering jewels 
Covered its bark, and buried the wood. 
Still through the gold that garnished its side, 
15 I was 'ware of wounds where once it had bled, 
Scars of a battle old. I was bowed with sorrow ; 
But the vision filled me with fear when I saw 
That it changed its hue — now chased with gold. 
Now stained with blood and streaming wet ! 
20 Long I lay thus, looking in sadness 

At the Saviour's Cross, when sudden I heard it 
Making melody, marked it singing; 
Wondrous words the wood did utter: 
"Many years ago, 

— yet I remember it all — 
25 Fast by a forest-side, 

they felled me where I grew. 
Severed me from my stock; 

strong foes took and shaped me 
For a spectacle to men; 

made me bear their criminals, 
Bore me away on their backs, 

bade me stand on a hill-top, 



CYNEWULF 125 



Band of fiends there fixed me. 

I saw the Friend of Man, 
Haste with mighty hardihood 

to mount on high and clasp me. 
I durst not bend nor falter, 

nor disobey my Lord ; 
Though I marked how all the earth 

with mighty tremblings shook. 
5 The fiends I might have felled there, 

but firm I stood unshaken. 
Then stripped the mighty hero, 

in sooth 'twas God Almighty. 
He clomb the towering cross, 

with spirit keen and daring; 
Bold in sight of the rabble, 

when our race he would deliver. 
I trembled as he embraced me, 

yet bow to earth I durst not, 
10 Nor prostrate fall with fear. 

'Stand fast,' my Lord commanded; 
I stood, a cross uplifted ! 

the King of glory I carried. 
Upheld the Lord of heaven ; 

my head I durst not bow. 
With gruesome nails they gored me, 

the gaping wounds are open; 
In bitter malice scarred me, 

strike back at the fiends I durst not. 
15 They mocked us both and beat us, 

with blood my sides were running. 
That flowed from the Saviour's body, 

when he bowed his head in death. 



126 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Much I endured on that mount of woe, {30) 

Throes and hate, for there I beheld 
The God of hosts, hanging outstretched. 
A pall of darkness dimmed his glory, 
5 Shrouded his body. The shadow rushed on. 
Black under clouds, all creatures wailed; 
Christ was on the cross; their King was dead! 

Soon a band I beheld, 

hastening swiftly forward. 
Comrades seeking their Lord; 

(clearly I saw it all.) 
10 Stricken with grief profound, 

forward I stooped to help them. 
Eagerly bending low. 

They lifted Him down from the cross, 
Released from his bitter agony; 

alone they left me there, 
Standing steeped in blood, 

wounded with shafts of malice. 
They folded His weary limbs, 

and watched at the head of his body; 
15 Looked intent on their Lord, 

the while He took His rest, 
Forspent with heavy toil. 

Then full in sight of His slayers 
They hastened to hollow a grave, 

hewn from glistening marble; 
Buried the Lord of Victory, 

and chanted a lay of mourning. 
Sadly at eventide; 

then sorrowing took their leave; 



CYNEWULF 127 

Went from the Lord of glory. 
There He rested alone. 

Long I stood, deserted by all; (70) 

At last they felled me, — fearful my fate; 
They dug a ditch, and deep they buried me. 
5 Erelong I was found by friends of my Lord, (/d) 
Who straightway adorned me with silver and gold. 
Here mayest thou learn, my hero beloved. 
What woe I endured, what work of felons, 
What trials sore. Now the time is come 

10 That far and wide o'er the world I am honored. 
All kindreds of men, the mighty creation. 
Kneel to this sign. For the Son of God 
On me did suffer ! This makes me glory ! 
Sublime I am lifted aloft in the sky, 

15 With might to heal all men who adore me. 
Once I was set for a sign of woe, 
A mark of shame, ere I showed to men, 
Wandering lost, the way of life. 
God who is Lord of glory, exalted me 

20 High o'er the towering trees of the forest." . . . (pi) 

With happy heart I hailed the cross, {^^^) 

And fervent zeal. No friend was near; 
Alone I knelt. I longed to depart; 
My soul was eager to start on her journey. 
25 Late I had lingered, my life's desire 

Was to come to the cross, the conqueror's beacon : 

More oft than other men, ever alone, 

To worship it worthily, wanting but this : 

To look on the cross whence cometh my help. 



128 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Friends have I few to defend and comfort me; (iJJ) 
They have left the hfe and dehght of the world; 
They have gone to greet the King of glory; 
They are folded in bliss with the Father on high; 
5 They live in the light of the Lord of angels; 
My heart beats high for the happy day 
When the cross of Christ shall come once more 
To fetch me away from this fleeting life, 
Bring me home to the bliss of heaven, 
lo Where the saints of God sit at the feast, 

Joined in raptures of joy eternal. (^44) 

May he who suffered for the sins of men (14^-1^6) 
On the cross of shame, show me the way. 
Guide me in grace to the goal of my hope, 
15 That so I may join the saints in their joy. 
And dwell forever in realms of bliss. 



THE PHOENIX 

(Ascribed to Cynewulf) 

Lo, I have heard of a happy land 

Far in the East, of a fair country. 

Happier, fairer, than earth-folk know. 
20 Far remote the mighty Creator 

Planted this realm, where few may reach it; 

Sinful mortals seek it in vain. 

Blest are those fields, abloom with the fragrance 

Of all sweet odors that earth exhales. 
25 Peerless the island, peerless her maker. 

Glorious the Lord who laid her foundations. 



CYNEWULF 129 

Her happy people hear glad singing, (//) 

Oft through Heaven's open door. 

Green are her woodlands, green and ample, 

Under her rainless roof outspread. 
5 Winter's breath or blast of fire. 

Driving hail or hoar-frost dreary, 

Heat of sun or cold incessant, 

Scorching noons or sleeting north-winds 

Ne'er may harm this happy island. 
10 Blest it lies, abloom with flowers. 

Ever the same through the seasons' change. 

No mountain ramparts mar those regions; 

No rugged heights, as here with us; 

No hill-sides steep, or hollows deep; 
15 No crags or clefts, no caves or dens; 

But smoothest lawns and sunny levels 

Of joyful flowers face those skies. 

Fathoms twelve the fair land towers 

(So wise men have writ in records old) 
20 O'er the loftiest peak that lifts its head, 

Here among us, up to the skies. 

'Tis a region calm of sunny groves 
Woodlands glad, whose wondrous trees 
Stand fair and fresh in unfading hues, 

25 Goodly and green at God's behest. 
Ever the same, summer and winter, 
In living green those groves are clad. 
Laden with fruit. No leaf shall waste 
No branch be blackened with blast of lightning 

30 Till doomsday come. When the deluge swept 
With might of waters the world of men, 



I30 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

And the flood o'erwhelmed the whole of earth, (^j) 

This isle withstood the storm of billows 

Serene and steadfast 'mid raging seas 

Spotless and pure by the power of God. 
5 Thus blest it abides till the bale-fire come, 

The day of doom when death's dark chambers, 

Abodes of shade, shall be broken asunder. 

No envious strife disturbs that isle; 

No tears or toil or trace of woe ; 
lo Needy age, or narrow death; 

Foe's assault, or sudden end ; 

No sin or sorrow, or sore distress ; 

No grinding want, or wealth uncertain, 

No bitter care, or bed of pain; 
15 No wintry weather's wild encounter 

Of crashing storms, no cruel frost 

Beats any man there with icy showers. 

No sleet or snow assails that isle ; 

No pelting rains pour from the clouds, 
20 Lashed by the gale; but living streams 

Wondrously gush from woodland springs, 

Lapping the earth with limpid ripples. 

Each month of the year in the midmost grove 

The winsome waters well sea-cold 
25 From the mossy turf; at the time appointed 

Wind through the wood in wandering streams. 

For God decreed that the joy of waters 

Should twelve times play through that land of plenty 

Thick hangs the fruit in the forest-glades; 
30 The shining clusters never decay. 

The holy burden of the bending trees. 

No withered blooms are wafted down; 



CYNEWULF 131 

No leaves are shed; but laden boughs (75) 

Of bounteous ever-bearing trees 
Yield ever-fresh and fragrant fruit. 
Green are the groves on the grassy sward 
5 Decked and adorned by the deed of God, 

In beauty unwasting. Through the woodlands bright 
A holy fragrance floats and hovers. 
Changeless through ages the isle shall remain, 
Till He that uplifted the land at the first 
10 Shall end his wisdom's ancient work. 

A glorious bird guardeth this grove. 

Noble in flight. Phoenix by name. 

Alone in the land he liveth, a hermit; 

Proudly dwelleth, proof against death, 
15 In this wood of delight, while the world endures. 

'Tis said he watches the way of the sun. 

Eager to greet the candle of God, 

The gleaming gem, and joyously waits 

Till the day-star come at dawn from the east, 
20 Shining bright o'er the billowy sea, 

First of lights by the Father created, 

Glorious sign of God. When the stars are gone, 

Dipped in the waves of the western sea, 

Or hid in the dawn, and dusky night 
25 Darkling departs, then poised for flight 

The strong-winged Phoenix scans the ocean. 

Sky and wave, and waits the time 

When the glorious light shall glide from the east 

And radiant rise o'er the rounding sea. 
30 This peerless bird abides by the fountain. 

Haunting ever the hallowed streams. 



132 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Twelve times bathes in the bubbling spring, (io6) 

Dipping his plumes ere day arrive, 

And the twinkle of dawn ; twelve times sips 

The waters that well sea-cold, and wets 
5 His beak at each bath in the bourne of delight. 

Then after his water-play wings him triumphant 

Aloft to a tree-top towering high, 

Whence in the east he may easily see 

The road of the sun, when rising clear, 
10 The lamp of heaven shall glitter and gleam 

O'er the welter of waves. The world is brightened, 

In beauty glows, as the glorious gem 

Flashes o'er ocean, inland afar, 

Lordly day-star lighting the earth. 
15 As soon as the sun o'er the salty streams, 

On high doth soar, the haughty bird 

Joyfully leaves his lofty perch. 

Darting upward on dauntless wing. 

And singing exultant, seeks the light. 
20 Glorious the greeting he giveth the sun, 

His spirit athrill with rapture of bliss; 

Warbling melodies wondrous sweet. 

With various art and voice more clear 

Than ever men heard the heavens beneath, 
25 Since the King of Glory, the great Creator, 

Established the world. More winsome far 

Than any music that men may make; 

And sweeter than any earthly strain, 

This trancing song. No sound of trump 
30 Or horn or harp ; or harmonies clear 

Of organ-pipes; or purest tones 

Of mortal voice, or music of the swan. 



CYNEWULF 133 

Or aught that God hath given to cheer ( 1^8) 

Earth's heavy toil, may touch this song. 
He carols and sings in unceasing delight 
Till the sun descends in the southern sky; 
5 Then sinketh his song and silent falls, 
The beautiful bird then bows his head 
And listening alert lifteth his wings' 
Beating them thrice, then bideth at rest. 
Ever he notes the turn of the hours 
10 Twelve times by day and twelve times by night. 

The lord of this grove hath leave to enjoy 
At his will the wealth of this wondrous isle. 
Life and delight in a land of plenty, 
Until he is worn with winters a thousand 

15 Of life upon earth, alone in the wood. 

Then aged and wise with the weight of years 
Hovers on high the hoary-plumed Phoenix, 
Leaves the green island and flowering plains, 
Wingeth his flight to a wide-spreading realm, 

20 A lonely and uninhabited land. 

There he inherits a kingdom mighty; 
Bold o'er the bird-tribes beareth rule ; 
Lives for a season, and lords it among them. 
Glorious grown, and guardeth the realm. 

25 But soon he departs on swiftest pinions. 
Westward winging his wondrous flight ; 
Thick the bird-tribes throng round their leader, 
Each of them eager to aid their lord. 
At length he comes to the coast of Syria, 

30 With his countless horde. Then harshly thrusting 
The throng away, he wheels him aside ; 



134 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Seeketh a dense wood's deepest shelter (^/o) 

To hide from the crowd in the covert dark. 
Tall in the grove a great tree towers, 
Firmly rooted 'neath heaven's roof, 
5 Named from the bird, and known as the Phoenix. 
The Maker of man, the mighty Creator, 
Hath granted a glorious growth to this tree. 
I have heard that it passes in height by far 
The tallest tree that towers on earth ; 
10 Its foliage fair shall flourish and thrive; 

Blight shall not touch it, its branches shall wave, 
Winsome and green while the world endures. 

When winds are laid and weather is calm, 
The lamp of heaven shines holy and pure ; 

15 Clouds are scattered and skies are clear; 
The mighty surge of the sea is stilled; 
Storms are asleep and warm in the south 
Gleams the sun and gladdens the world. 
Then begins the bird to build in the branches, 

20 To furnish his nest for his hour of need. 

When his spirit's fervor shall urge him to change 
The years of his age, restoring his youth. 
And renewing his life. From near and far 
He gathers together the goodliest herbs ; 

25 Blossoms and leaves he brings from the wood; 
Fills with fragrance his forest-abode; 
Culls each sweet that the King of glory. 
The Father, created o'er earth's wide realm. 
To charm and delight the children of men. 

30 So he collects the loveliest blossoms ; 
Treasures bright he brings to the tree. 



CYNEWULF 135 

Soon in the solitude's deep recess {202) 

A winsome bower the wild bird builds him, 

A home in the tree-top ; and houses him there, 

High aloft in the leafy shade; 

Surrounds himself with richest spices, 

Herbs the rarest that earth may yield; 

Makes for his body a bed of blossoms, 

Fain to depart. With folded pinions 

He watcheth on high and awaiteth his hour. 



10 When overhead the sun in summer 
Out of heaven hottest shines, 
The scathing heat scorches his house ; 
The blossoms are warmed ; the bower smokes 
With incense sweet, and bursts into flame; 

15 Bird and nest are burned together: 
The blaze is kindled, the bale-fire wraps 
In roaring flames his wretched abode. 
And fiercely feeds on the Phoenix hoar, 
Ancient of years. His aged body 

20 Is prey to the flames : his fleeting spirit. 

Hastens to its doom, when the hot blast sunders 
Flesh from bone. Yet the breath of life 
In the fulness of time returneth again. 
Soon as the flickering flame subsides, 

25 The ashes are knit and kneaded together: 
When the beautiful nest is burnt to a cinder. 
And body and bones of the bird are crumbled, 
In the waning glow of the whitening embers 
A ball is found, in the bed of ashes 

30 Rolled together, round like an apple ; 
Out of it comes a curious creature, 
Wondrous in hue, as though it were hatched. 



136 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Shining bright, from the shell of an egg. (^34) 

It grows in the shade to the shape of an eaglet, 

A nestling fair, then further increases, 

Lustily thriving, larger still, 
5 Equalling soon an eagle in size. 

At length he is fledged with feathers gay. 

Bright as of old with beauteous plumes, 

His body renewed by the birth of fire. 

Taint of evil all taken away. 
10 Like as when men in the month of harvest 

Gather for food the fruits of the earth; 

Garner their crops 'gainst coming of winter; 

Shelter and shield them from showers and storms. 

Laying in stores and living in plenty, 
15 While roaring winter rages amain. 

And covers the fields with coat of snow ; 

Out of those winter-stores, wealth abounding 

Shall come through the germ of life in the corn. 

Cleanly sown as a seed in the spring. 
20 When the sun returns, the token of life, 

And his warm rays waken the wealth of the world, 

Sprouteth afresh each fruit of the earth, 

Each in its own kind quickened and kindled 

To brighten the field. So the Phoenix old 
25 After many years his youth renews; 

Is girt again with a garment of flesh. 

Earthly food he refuseth to touch. 

Save that he drinketh drops of honey-dew 

That often fall at midnight hour; 
30 Tasting nought else until he revisit 

His own abode and ancient home. (^^4) 



CYNEWULF 137 

THE PHOENIX A SYMBOL OF THE RESURRECTION 

A man of God, with mind prophetic, (5/0) 

Sang of old a song inspired; 

Foretold his rising to life eternal. 

That we more readily might read the meaning 
5 Of the fate of the Phoenix, — his fiery death: 

When he brings away his body's remnant; 

Gathers the ashes and embers together, 

Clasped in his claws, and carries them off. 

Flying sunward, when the flame subsides, 
10 To the courts of the Lord, where he lives secure 

Through countless years, all young again. 

No foe infests that fair domain; 

No hardship there can harm him further. 

Thus body and soul, by the Saviour's might 
15 Joined after death, shall journey together 

To the land of delight, laden with savor 

Of incense sweet, like the soaring Phoenix, 

Where high o'er the hosts, in the house of glory, 

The Sun of Righteousness radiant streams. 

20 When the Saviour Christ on the souls of the blest 
Shines from on high, toward heaven's gate 
They mount, like beautiful birds, to meet him: 
Glad is the song and glorious the shape 
Of the spirits-elect in that land of joy, 

25 Where envy and malice no more shall touch them : 
For ever and ever from evil free. 
They live in peace, apparelled in light, 
Girt with glory, by God defended. 
Like the Phoenix wondrous. The works of each 

30 Sun-like gleam and glow in splendor. 



138 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Bright before the face of the Lord, (600) 

In clear abodes of blessed calm. 

A crown of glory glittering bright, 

Studded round with rarest jewels, 
5 Decks the brow of each blessed saint. 

The radiance floods their foreheads shining; 

God's diadem adorns the righteous 

With jewelled light. They live in joy 

Endless, immortal, and ever renewed, 
10 In bliss secure and clothed in beauty; 

At home with the Father of angels in heaven 

No sorrow haunts those happy mansions ; 

No danger, dread, nor days of toil; 

No parching thirst, nor pangs of hunger; 
15 No need, nor age; the noble King 

Dispenseth bounty; the spirit-host 

Praise their Redeemer, the Prince of Heaven; 

Honor and magnify the might of the Lord; 

Shouting glad, that glorious company 
20 Surround on high God's holy throne ; 

Saints and angels sing triumphant. 

Worshipping God with one accord: 

'Teace be to Thee true God! Power and Wisdom! 

Thanks to Thee evermore, throned in majesty, 
25 For the gifts Thy grace doth grant us anew, 

Boundless in might, dominion and glory, 

High and holy! The heavens above. 

Abode of the angels, and the earth also. 

Father Almighty, are full of thy majesty; 
30 Thou Glory of glories, and greatest of kings ! 

Defend us Creator, Thou Father Almighty, 

And Ruler of Heaven, who reignest on high." 



CYNEWULF 139 

Thus hymn aloud the host of the righteous, (6^^) 
Cleansed from guilt, in the glorious city; 
Publish the praise of the Prince of Heaven; 
The choir of saints keep singing on high : 
5 "To Him alone belongeth all honor 

Thanksgiving and worship, world without end! 
Never His glory hath known a beginning, 
Though He chose to be born a child upon earth, 
Here among men, yet the might of His power 

10 High o'er the heavens in holiness dwelt, 

In glory undimmed. Though death's sharp pang 
He bore on the cross, and bitter woe. 
The third day after the throes of his passion 
Laid low his body. He was brought to life 

15 By the Father's grace. So the Phoenix stands 
For a sign of the power of the Son of God, 
When he wakes to the life of Hfe from his ashes, 
Girt with limbs in the glory of youth. 
Thus by the sundring of soul and body, 

20 To Hfe everlasting our Lord did help us, 
Even as the Phoenix, eager for flight, 
Loadeth his wings with winsome herbs, 
And sweetest blossoms that bloom upon earth." 

Such is the burden, as scriptures tell us, 
25 The songs of the saints whose souls have departed 
To the joy of joys, on the journey to heaven, 
And the God of grace. For a gift to the Lord 
They bring a sw^eet-smelling savor on high 
Of words and works, in that world of bliss 
30 And radiant life. Render to Him 
Praise and Honor, Power and Glory; 



I40 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Worship and Wisdom, World without end, (66^) 

In heaven above. He only is King 

Of earth's wide round, and the realms of light. 

With splendor girt in that glorious city. 
5 Leave hath granted us lucis auctor. 

That here we might merueri; 

By good deeds gain gaudia in celo; 

That so we men maxima regna 

Might reach, and sit in sedihus altis; 
10 Live in delight lucis et pads; 

Enter our home alwxie letitiae; 

In bliss immortal, hlandem et mitem 

See our Saviour sine fine; 

Prolong his praises laiide perenne, 
15 In bliss with the angels. Alleluia. 



2. SECULAR LYRIC AND ELEGY 

THE WANDERER 

Many a lonely man at last comes to honor; 
Merits God's mercy, though much he endured 
On wintry seas, with woe in his heart. 
Dragging his oar through drenching-cold brine, 
20 Homeless and houseless and hunted by Wyrd. -{ ' 

These are the w^ords of a wayfaring wanderer, 
This is his song of the sorrow of life, 
Slaughter of foemen, felling of kinsmen : 

Oft in the dark, alone before dawning, 
25 All to myself my sorrow I tell. 



THE WANDERER 141 

No friend have I here, to whom I may open (71) 
My heart's deep secret, my hidden spring of woe. 
Well do I know 'tis the way of the high-born, 
Fast in his heart to fetter his feelings, 
5 Lock his unhappiness in the hold of his mind. 
Spirit that sorrows withstandeth not destiny, 
Heart that complaineth plucketh no help. 
A haughty hero will hide his suffering, 
Manfully master misery's pang. 

10 Thus stricken with sorrow, stript of my heritage, 
Far from kinsmen and country and friends, 
Grimly I grappled my grief to my bosom. 
Since long time ago, my giver of bounty 
Was laid in the earth, and left me to roam 

15 Watery wastes, with winter in my heart. 
Forsaken I sought a shielder and protector; 
Far and near I found none to greet the wanderer. 
No master to make him welcome in his wine-hall; 
None to cheer the cheerless, or the friendless to be- 
friend. 

20 He who has lost all his loved companions 
Knoweth how bitter a bedfellow is sorrow. 
Loneliness his lot, not lordly gold, 
Heart-chilling frost, not harvest of plenty. 
Oft he remembers the mirth of the mead-hall, 

25 Yearns for the days of his youth, w^hen his dear lord 
Filled him with abundance. Faded are those joys! 
He shall know them no more; no more shall he listen 
To the voice of his lord, his leader and counsellor. 
Sometimes sleep and sorrow together 

30 Gently enfold the joyless wanderer: 



142 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Bright are his dreams, he embraces his lord again, 
Kisses his liege, and lays on his knee (42) 

Head and hands as in happy days. 
When he thanked for a boon his bountiful giver. 
5 Wakes with a start the wanderer homeless; 
Nought he beholds but the heaving surges. 
Seagulls dipping and spreading their wings. 
Scurries of snow and the scudding hail. 
Then his heart is all the heavier, 

10 Sore after sweet dreams sorrow reviveth. 
Fain would he hold the forms of his kinsmen, 
Longingly leans to them, lovingly greets them ; 
Slowly their faces swim into distance; 
No familiar greeting comes from the fleeting 

15 Companies of kinsmen. Care ever shadows 

The way of the traveller, whose track is on the waters, 
Whose path is on the billows of the boundless deep. 

Behold I know not how I may keep 

My heart from sinking, heavy with sorrow, 

20 When all life's destiny deepiy„I_ pimder,: — 

Men that are suddenly snatched in their prime, 
High-souled heroes; so the whole of this earth 
Day by day droopeth and sinketh to decay. . . (dj) 
How dread is the doom of the last desolation, (/j) 

25 When all the wealth of the world shall be waste. 
He that is wise may learn, if he looks 
Abroad o'er this land, where lonely and ruinous, 
Wind-swept walls, waste are standing; 
Tottering towers, crusted with frost, 

30 Crumbling wine-halls, bare to the sky. 
Dead is their revelry, dust are the revellers ! 



THE WANDERER 143 

Some they have fallen on far fields of battle, {81) 
Some have gone down in ships on the sea; 
Some were the prey of the prowling gray-wolf, 
Some by their loved ones were laid in the earth. 
5 The Lord of the living hath levelled their mansions, 
Silenced the sound of the singing and laughter. 
Empty and bare are all their habitations, 
Wondrous works of the giants of old. 

He that considers this scene of desolation, 
10 And this dark life deeply doth ponder, — 

Battle and bloodshed, burning and slaughter, 

It bringeth to mind, and mournfully he asks : 

Where is the warrior, where is the war-horse? 

Where is the giver of bounty, where are the boon- 
companions, 
15 The ^'dream and the gleam" that gladdened the hall? 

Alas the bright ale-cup, alas the brave warrior ! 

Alas the pride of princes! Their prime is no more; 

Sunk under night's shadow, as though it never had 
been! 

W^here lusty warriors thronged, this lone wall towers, 
20 Weird with dragon-shapes, wondrously carven; 

Storm of ash-spears hath stricken the heroes, 

Blood-thirsty weapons, J3,^^^£44h.e -supreme;. 

Wintry blasts now buffet these battlements; 

Dreary snow-storms drift up the earth, 
25 The terror of winter when wild and wan 

Down from the north with the darkness drives 

The ruinous scourge of the ruthless hail. 

All this life is labor and sorrow. 
Doom of destiny darkens o'er earth. 



144 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Wealth is fleeting, friends are fleeting, 

Man is fleeting, maid is fleeting. 

All this earth's foundations utterly shall pass. {iJpjj < 



^^'' V>' 



i ej^y 



t^ .O^kJ 



t^i 



THE SEA-FARER 



The poem translated below, has been interpreted as a dialogue 
between a weather-beaten old sailor and a youth eager to go to 
sea. The parts are not assigned in the original MS., and the only 
warrant for our dialogue form lies in the structure of the poem 
itself. 

The Old Sailor: 

True is the tale that I tell of my travels, 
5 Sing of my sea-faring sorrows and woes; 
Hunger and hardship's heaviest burdens. 
Tempest and terrible toil of the deep. 
Daily I've borne on the deck of my boat. 
Fearful the welter of waves that encompassed me, 

lo Watching at night on the narrow bow. 

As she drove by the rocks, and drenched me with 

spray. 
Fast to the deck my feet were frozen, 
Gripped by the cold, while care's hot surges 
My heart o'erwhelmed, and hunger's pangs 

15 Sapped the strength of my sea-weary spirit. 

Little he knows whose lot is happy. 
Who lives at ease in the lap of the earth. 
How, sick at heart, o'er icy seas, 
Wretched I ranged the winter through, 
20 Bare of joys, and banished from friends. 



THE SEA-FARER 145 

Hung with icicles, stung by hail-stones. (i/) 

Nought I heard but the hollow boom 
Of wintry waves, or the wild swan's whoop. 
For singing I had the solan's scream; 
5 For peals of laughter, the yelp of the seal ; 

The sea-mew's cry, for the mirth of the mead-hall. 
Shrill through the roar of the shrieking gale 
Lashing along the sea-cliff's edge, 
Pierces the ice-plumed petrel's defiance, 
10 And the wet- winged eagle's answering scream. 

Little he dreams that drinks life's pleasure, 
By danger untouched in the shelter of towns 
Insolent and wine-proud, how utterly weary 
Oft I wintered on open seas. 
15 Night fell black, from the north it snowed 
Harvest of hail. 

The Youth: 

Oh wildly my heart (?^ ^^ 

Beats in my bosom and bids me to try 

The tumble and surge of seas tumultuous, 
20 Breeze and brine and the breakers' roar. 

Daily, hourly, drives me my spirit 

Outward to sail, far countries to see. 

Liveth no man so large in his soul. 

So gracious in giving, so gay in his youth, 
25 In deeds so daring, so dear to his lord. 

But frets his soul for his sea-adventure, 

Fain to try what fortune shall send. 

Harping he heeds not, nor hoarding of treasure; 

Nor woman can win him, nor joys of the world. 
30 Nothing doth please but the plunging billows; 



146 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Ever he longs, who is lured by the sea. (4^) 

Woods are abloom, the wide world awakens, 
Gay are the mansions, the meadows most fair ; 
These are but warnings, that haste on his journey 
5 Him whose heart is hungry to taste 

The perils and pleasures of the pathless deep. (^^) 

The Old Sailor: 

Dost mind the cuckoo mournfully calling? 

The summer's watchman sorrow forbodes. 

What does the landsman that wantons in luxury, 
10 What does he reck of the rough sea's woe. 

The cares of the exile, whose keel has explored 

The uttermost parts of the ocean-ways ! ^ ' 

The Youth: 

Sudden my soul starts from her prison-house, 

Soareth afar o'er the sounding main ; 
15 Hovers on high, o'er the home of the whale; 

Back to me darts the bird-sprite and beckons. 

Winging her way o'er woodland and plain. 

Hungry to roam, and bring me where glisten 

Glorious tracts of glimmering foam. 
20 This life on land is lingering death to me. 

Give me the gladness of God's great sea. (66) 



THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE 147 



THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE 

An exile from his country sends to his wife overseas a mes- 
sage, bidding her join him in his new home where he has pros- 
pered. The letters are cut on a tablet of wood, and the wood 
itself is supposed to speak. Compare the Vision of the Cross, 
and the Riddles for this kind of dramatic personification. 

See I bring thee a secret message! 
A sapling once in the woods I grew ; 
I was cut for a stave and covered with writing, 
Skilled men cunningly carved upon me 
5 Letters fair, in a faraway land. 

Since have I crossed the salt-streams often, 
Carried in ships to countries strange ; 
Sent by my lord, his speech to deliver 
In many a towering mead-hall high. 
10 Hither I've sped, the swift keel brought me, 
Trial to make of thy trust in my master; 
Look thou shalt find him loyal and true. 

He told me to come, that carved this letter, 
And bid thee recall, in thy costly array, 

15 The pledges ye plighted, the promises fair 
Ye gave to each other in days of old, 
When still in the land ye lived together. 
Happily mated, and held in the mead-halls 
Your home and abode. A bitter feud. 

20 Banished him far. He bids me call thee, 
Earnestly urge thee overseas. 



148 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

When thou hast heard, from the brow of the hill, 
The mournful cuckoo call in the wood, {22) 

Let no man living delay thy departure, 
Hinder thy going, or hold thee at home. 
5 Away to the sea, where the gulls are circling! 
Board me a ship that's bound from the shore; 
Sail away south, to seek thy own husband; 
Over the water he waits for thee. 

No keener joy could come to his heart, 
10 No greater happiness gladden his soul. 

Than if God who wieldeth the world, should grant 

That ye together should yet give rings. 

Treasure of gold to trusty liegemen. 

A home he hath found in a foreign land, 
15 Fair abode and followers true. 

Hardy heroes, though hence he was driven ; 

Shoved his boat from the shore in distress, 

Steered for the open, sped o'er the ocean. 

Weary wave-tossed wanderer he. 

20 Past are his woes, he has won through his perils, 
He lives in plenty, no pleasure he lacks ; 
Nor horses nor goods nor gold of the mead-hall ; 
All the wealth of earls upon earth 
Belongs to my lord, he lacks but thee. 



III. Charms, Riddles, and Gnomic 
Poetry 

1. CHARMS 

THE PLOUGHMAN'S CHARM 

Here is the remedy how thou mayest cure thy land if it 
refuses to bear, or if aught untoward hath befallen it by 
way of witchcraft or sorcery. Strew seed on the body 
of the plough and repeat these words: — 

Erce, Erce, Erce, Mother of Earth, (^p) 

May the Almighty, Lord Everlasting, 

Grant thee fields, green and fertile. 

Grant thee fields, fruitful and growing, 
5 Hosts of Spear-shafts, shining harvests, 
Harvest of Barley the broad. 
Harvest of Wheat the white, 

All the heaping harvests of earth! 

May the Almighty Lord Everlasting, 
lo And his holy saints in heaven above. 

From fiend and foe defend this land, 

Keep it from blight and coming of harm, 

From spell of witches wickedly spread! 

Now I pray the Almighty who made this world, 
15 That malice of man, or mouth of woman 

Never may weaken the words I have spoken. 

Start the plough, and when the first furrow is turned, 
say: — 

Hail to thee Earth, Mother of men ! (6/) 

149 



150 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Grow and be great in God's embrace, 
Filled with fruit for the food of men ! 

Knead a loaf of bread with milk and holy water, lay 
it under the first furrow and say : — 

Field be full of food for men, 
5 Blossom bright, for blessed thou art 

In the name of the Holy who made the Heavens, 
Created the earth whereon we live. 
God who gavest this ground 
Grant us growth and increase 
10 Let each seed that is sown, sprout and be useful. 

CHARM FOR A SUDDEN STITCH 

Take feverfew, and plantain, and the red nettle that 
grows into the house. Boil in butter. Say : — 

Loud was their cry as they came o'er the hill ; 
Fierce was their rage as they rode o'er the land. 
Take heed and be healed of the hurt they have done thee. 

Out little spear if in there thou be! 
15 My shield I lifted, my linden-wood shining, 
When the mighty women mustered their force, 
And sent their spear-points spinning toward me. 
I'll give them back the bolt they sent, 
A flying arrow full in the face. 
20 Out little spear if in there thou be ! 

Sat a smith, 

A hard blade hammered. 
Out little spear if in there thou be! 
Six smiths sat. 



CHARMS 151 

Fighting spears forged they. (16) 

Out spear, out ! 
No longer stay in ! 
If any iron be found herein, 
5 The work of witches, away it must melt. 
Be thou shot in the fell. 
Be thou shot in the flesh. 
Be thou shot in the blood, 
Be thou shot in the bone, 
10 Be thou shot in the limb. 

Thy life shall be shielded. 
Be it shot of Esa, 
Be it shot of Elves, 
Be it shot of Hags, 
15 I help thee surely. 

This for cure of Esa-shot, 
This for cure of Elf-shot, 
This for cure of Hag-shot, 
I help thee surely. 
20 Witch fly away to the woods and the mountains. 
Healed be thy hurt ! So help thee the Lord. 

2. RIDDLES 

THE BOOK-WORM 

A moth ate a word ! To me that seemed 

A strange thing to happen, when I heard that 

wonder, — 
A worm that would swallow the speech of a man, 
25 Sayings of strength steal in the dark. 

Thoughts of the mighty; yet the thieving sprite 
Was none the wiser for the words he had eaten! 



152 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

GNATS 

There's a troop of tiny folk travelling swift, 
Brought by the breeze o'er the brink of the hill, 
Buzzing black-coated bold little people, — 
Noisy musicians; well-known is their song. 
5 They scour the thickets, but sometimes invade 
The rooms of the town. Now tell me their names. 

THE SHIELD 

Wounded I am, and weary with fighting ; 
Gashed by the iron, gored by the point of it. 
Sick of battle-work, battered and scarred. 

lo Many a fearful fight have I seen, when 

Hope there was none, or help in the thick of it, 
Ere I was down and fordone in the fray. 
Offspring of hammers, hardest of battle-blades. 
Smithied in forges, fell on me savagely, 

15 Doomed to bear the brunt and the shock of it. 
Fierce encounter of clashing foes. 
Leech cannot heal my hurts with his simples, 
Salves for my sores have I sought in vain. 
Blade-cuts dolorous, deep in the side of me, 

20 Daily and nightly redouble my wounds. 

BARNACLE ON THE HULL OF A SAILING- 
VESSEL 

(or Barnacle-Goose) 

I'm found under water, held fast by my mouth ; 
Swirl of the sea-tides goes sweeping beneath me. 
Fathom-deep sunk under surges, I grew, 



RIDDLES 153 

Bending roof of billows above me, 

My body adrift on a floating beam. 

You'll find me alive if you lift me and free me. 

Dull is my coat as I come from the deep, 

But straight I am decked with streamers of white, 

Bright when the freshening breeze brings me from 

underseas. 
Heaves me up, and urges me far 
O'er the seal-bath salty. Say what Fm called. 



HONEY-MEAD 

I'm prized by men, in the meadows I'm found, 

lo Gathered on hill-sides, and hunted in groves; 

From dale and from down, by day I am brought. 
Airy wings carry me, cunningly store me, 
Hoarding me safe. Yet soon men take me; 
Drained into vats, Fm dangerous grown. 

15 I tie up my victim, and trip him, and throw him; 
Often I floor a foolish old churl. 
Who wrestles with me, and rashly would measure 
His strength against mine, will straightway find him- 
self 
Flung to the ground, flat on his back, 

20 Unless he leave his folly in time. 

Put from his senses and power of speech, 
Robbed of his might, bereft of his mind, 
Of his hands and feet. Now find me my name, 
Who can bind and enslave men so upon earth, 

25 And bring fools low in broad daylight. 



154 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

THE ANCHOR 

I war with the wind, with the waves I wrestle ; 
I must battle with both when the bottom I seek, 
My strange habitation by surges o'er-roofed. 
I am strong in the strife, while still I remain; 
5 As soon as I stir, they are stronger than L 

They wrench and they wrest, till I run from my foes ; 
What was put in my keeping they carry away. 
If my back be not broken, I baffle them still; 
The rocks are my helpers, when hard I am pressed ; 
10 Grimly I grip them. Guess what I'm called. 

THE PLOUGH 

My beak is below, I burrow and nose 

Under the ground. I go as I'm guided 

By my master the farmer, old foe of the forest; 

Bent and bowed, at my back he walks, 
15 Forward pushing me over the field; 

Sows on my path where I've passed along. 

I came from the wood, a wagon carried me; 

I was fitted with skill, I am full of wonders. 

As grubbing I go, there's green on one side, 
20 But black on the other my path is seen. 

A curious prong pierces my back; 

Beneath me in front, another grows down 

And forward pointing is fixed to my head. 

I tear and gash the ground with my teeth, 
25 If my master steer me with skill from behind. 



RIDDLES I5S 

THE SWAN 

My robe is silent, when I rest on earth, 
Or run by the shore, or ruffle the pools; 
But oft on my pinions upward I mount, 
Borne to the skies on the buoyant air, 
5 High o'er the haunts and houses of men, 
Faring afar with the fleeting clouds. 
Then sudden my feathers are filled with music. 
They sing in the wind, as I sail aloft 
O'er wave and wood, a wandering sprite. 

3. GNOMIC VERSES 

(From the Cotton MS.) 

10 The king shall rule his kingdom; castles are seen from 
afar, (j) 

Reared by giants, they rise in the land. 

Wondrous walls of masonry. Wind is swiftest aloft; 

Far is the thunder heard. Fair are the glories of 
Christ. 

Wyrd is strongest, winter is coldest, 
15 Lent is hoariest, 'tis latest cold. 

Harvest is merriest, to men it brings 

Fruits of the year, furnished by God. 

Truth is plainest. Treasure is dearest, 

Gold to the children of men. Gray hairs are wisest : 
20 Who longest hath lived, hath learned the most. 

Troubles shall cleave. Clouds shall dissolve. 

Comrades good shall encourage an aetheling 

To be brave in the fight, and free of his gold. 

Earls shall be daring. Iron shall ring 



156 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Against helmet in battle. Hooded, the falcon (i/) 
Shall keep his wildness. Wolf in the forest 
Shall outlaw be. Boar in the thicket 
Shall tear with his tusks. Trusty earl 
To praise shall aspire. Spear for the hand, 
5 Gold-adorned javelin. Jewel in ring 
Shall richly be set. River with sea 
Shall mingle its stream. Mast in the ship, 
Sail on the yard, sword in the breast, 

10 Iron that is doughty. Dragon in the cave, 
Fierce o'er his treasure. Fish in the water 
Shall spawn its kind. King in the hall 
Shall bracelets bestow. Bear on the heath 
Surly shall roam. Stream from the hill-side 

15 Gray shall gush. Together shall stand 
Troops of comrades. Truth in an earl, 
In councillors wisdom. The woods shall bloom 
With brightest hues; hills shall stand 
Green on the earth. God is in heaven, 

20 To judge our deeds. Door for the hall, 
The building's mouth. Boss for the shield. 
Fingers to fend. Fowls in the air 
Shall sport and play. Salmon in the pool 
Shall dart and shoot. Showers from the skies 

25 Windy and wet on the world shall fall. 

Thief shall stalk in the dark. Giant shall dwell on 

the fen, 
Alone on the moorland. Maid shall in secret 
Go to her friend, if she fail to be bought 
With gold before her folk. The flood shall be salt, 

30 Waves of the ocean that wash the land, 

And break on the shores. The beast of the field 



GNOMIC VERSES 157 

Shall breed and bring forth. Bright in the heavens 
Stars shall glitter, as God hath bid them. (^p) 

Good against evil; youth against age; 
Light against dark; life against death; 
5 Host against host shall harry the land, 
Foe against foe with feud shall come, 
Stirring up strife. The sage shall ponder 
This warring world. The "wolf" shall hang, 
Pay for the wrong he wrought upon earth, 

10 His guilt among men; God alone knows 
The place that his soul shall seek hereafter. 
Bourne of the spirits that speed to their Maker, 
When the stroke of death hath sent them to God, 
Where they wait for their doom. Dark is the future, 

15 Dark and hidden! He alone knows. 

Our Helper in need; for none comes hither. 
Revisits his home to reveal to men 
What manner of mansions the Almighty inhabits. 
What seats of glory are God's abode. 

(From the Exeter Book) 

20 As the sea is smooth when storms are at rest, {55-56) 
So people are quiet when peace is proclaimed. 

Ship shall be nailed, shield shall be bound (p^) 

Lindenwood decked. Dear to the Frisian wife. 
And welcome the sailor that stands at the door. 
25 Home is her husband, his boat's in the harbor; 
She bids him in, her own provider; 
She washes his weedy coat; she gets him garments 

fresh. 
'Tis dear on the land where a loved one is waiting. 



158 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Wife shall be true to the man she hath wedded. (lOi) 
Faithful are many, but many are froward, 
They will love a stranger when their lord is away. 
Long doth the seaman stay on his voyage, 

5 Weary the wife that waits her dear one. 
Though bitter her lot, she bideth her hour ; 
Safe again home she shall see her husband, 

, Unless he is lying, lost and sunken, 
' Locked in the arms of the ocean vast. (lo/) 

10 Hapless outlaws shall house with the wolves; (14/) 

The treacherous beasts oft tear their comrade. 

When the gray-wolf kills, there are graves to be 
filled. 

His howls are heard as hungry he roams. 

Prowling for prey; no pity in his wail 
15 For men he has murdered; he is greedy for more. 

Prudent counsels are becoming to men. (i^^) 

To the gleeman his song, to the sage his wisdom. 
As many men, so many minds : 
Separate thanes have separate thoughts. 

20 He longeth the least, that hath store of lays. 
Or with hands of skill can strike the harp. 
On whom God hath bestowed the gift of song. 
Wretched who lives alone in the world. 
Doomed by fate to dwell without friends; 

25 'Twere better he had a brother in his house. 

Both men sons of the self-same father. (-^7^) 

There's sport on the ship when she runs under sail 

{186) 



GNOMIC VERSES 159 

'Tis weary work against wind to row. 
They call him a coward and craven shirk, 
Whose oar is aboard with blade unwetted. 

THE FATES OF MEN 

(From the Exeter Book) 

Full oft by the grace of God it happens 
To man and woman in wedlock joined, 
5 A child is born. They cherish it fondly. 
Tend and teach it, till the time is come, 
When the little one's limbs, in the lapse of years. 
Have sturdy grown, and gained their strength. 
So father and mother fondly rear it, 

10 Nourish and guard it. But God alone knows 
The gift of the years to the growing child. 
Sudden death is the doom of one, 
Snatched away in the spring of his youth. 
By a violent end, devoured by wolves 

15 That range the heath: Her unhappy child 

The mother bemoans, but man may not change it. 

One shall famine slay ; another the flood sweep away ! 

One shall the battle break ; another the bolt o'ertake ! 

One shall in darkness drear drag out his life, 
20 Groping to feel where his foot may stand. 

Stricken with palsy in sinew and limb, 

Another shall grieve and groan at his fate. 

One shall fall from a forest tree : 

Fearful he wheels in wingless flight, 
25 Spins through the air and swoops to the ground ; 

From the crown of the trunk, he crashes to earth. 



i6o OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Stunned and senseless, all still he lies (^5) 

On the straggling roots, his soul is departing! 

One shall wander, weary and foot-sore, 

Far through the world, famished and needy, 
5 Trudging at dawn along dewy trails, 

In a land unloved and an alien soil. 

Few are alive to befriend the wanderer. 

Ever unwelcome are eyes of woe. 

High on the gallows shall hang another, 
10 Dangle and strangle, till he stiffen in death. 

Bloody-beaked birds on his body shall prey; 

The plundering raven shall pluck out his eyes. 

Tear and claw the carcass to shreds. 

Helpless he hangs, — his hands avail not 
15 To ward off the scavengers that swoop through the 
air. 

Hope-of-life has left that livid corpse; 

Senseless and stark he suffers his Wyrd, 

Drowned in the death-mist: doom of the criminal. 

One shall be burnt in the weltering blaze; 

20 Flames shall devour their fated victim. 
Swift and sudden his sundering from life 
In the lurid glow. Loud wails the mother. 
As she watches the flames enfolding her darling. 
One shall be slain as he sits on the mead-bench, 

25 Ale-brawl ended by edge of the sword. 

The drunkard's folly, — too froward his tongue! (§0) 

So the Lord Almighty allots unto men (64) 

Manifold fortunes o'er the face of the earth; 
Dealeth their dole, their destiny holds. 
30 To some he gives wealth, to some he gives woe. 



GNOMIC VERSES i6i 

Gladness of youth to some, to others glory In battle, 
Strength in the war-play, with spear and with bow- 
string, (6p) 
Fame arid honor ; to others he gives 
Skill in the game of the checkered board. 
5 Some become learned in lore of books. 
Some have the gift of working in gold : 
Of beaten metal they make bright ornaments, 
And get broad lands from their lord in return. 
Receive them with joy from the generous king. 

lo One shall wait upon wassailing comrades. 
Gladden the hearts of heroes carousing. 
Large is their joy as they laugh at the revels. 
One shall be found at the feet of his lord; 
With his harp he shall win a harvest of wealth ; 

15 Quickly he tightens the twangling strings, 

They ring and they swing, as his spur-shod finger 
Dances across them, deftly he plays. 
Another shall tame the towering falcon. 
Hawk in hand, till the haughty flier 

20 Grows meek and gentle; he makes him jesses. 
Feeds in fetters the feather-proud bird, 
With dainty morsels the dauntless soarer. 
Until the wild one is weakened and humbled. 
Belled and tasselled, obeys his master 

25 Hooded and tamed and trained to his hand. 

So marvelously God in his might bestows 
Skill upon men In many lands, 
Shaping their lives, and allotting their fortunes 
To dwellers on earth of every kin. 
30 Let each man render Him honor and praise 
For the gifts His grace hath granted to mortals. 



IV. Historic War Poetry 

THE BATTLE OF BRUNNANBURG 

(From the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 937 A.D.) 

^thelstan Lord, and leader of earls, 
Gold-friend of heroes, he with his brother 
5 Edmund ^theling, agelong glory 
Won in war, with weapons keen, 
By Brunnanburg. They broke the shield-wall; 
With offspring of hammers they hewed the linden- 
woods, 
Heirs of Edward. Oft had they driven 

10 The foe from the land, and foiled the invader. 
True to their blood in battle defending 
Their hoard and their home. Huge was the slaughter 
They made of the boat-crews and bands of the Scots- 
men, 
Doomed men fell. The field was drenched; 

15 Ran with the blood of the bravest fighters 

From rise of the sun, when the radiant day-star. 
Bright candle of God, came in the morning-tide 
Gliding o'er earth, till the glorious creature 
Sank to its setting. The slain lay thick; 

20 Maimed by the spear lay many a Northman, 
Shot over shield ; shattered and war-spent. 
Many a Scot. But the men of Wessex 
Drove all day the Dane-folk before them; > 
162 



THE BATTLE OF BRUNNANBURG 163 

Hung on the trail of the troop that they hated; {22) 
Hewed from behind the host of the pirates, 
With weapons new-whetted. Not one of the rovers 
Who came with Anlaf across the water 
5 Aboard his war-ship, bound for our shores, 
Fated to fall, found that the Mercian 
Refused him hand-play. Five young chieftains 
Lay stretched on the field. Seven great earls 
Of Anlaf were killed, and countless others 

10 Of boatmen and Scotsmen. Barely escaped 
The Northern leader. Leaving in haste. 
With a handful of men, he made for his ship. 
They cleared the craft, the king put out 
On the fallow flood; he fled for his life. 

15 Also the cunning Constantinus. 

Home again stole to his haunts in the north. 
Little ground had the gray old leader 
To brag and to boast of the battle-encounter. 
Stripped of his clansmen killed in the slaughter. 

20 Alone he returned, his own son dead. 

Left on the battle-field, bloody and mangled. 
Brave young warrior. No bragging for him, 
Grisly old traitor, of glorious sword-play; 
Little for him or Anlaf to laugh about, 

25 In midst of the wTeck of their mighty array. 
No boasting for them that they had the better 
In the crashing of helmets, the heat of the conflict; 
The splintering of spears, the struggle of heroes; 
The grinding of weapons, the game of battle 

30 They chose to play with the children of Edward. 
So parted the Northmen on their nail-studded ships, 
Bbod-reddened wreck and remnant of lances; 



i64 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Sailed o'er the deep again, Dublin to seek, (^^) 

And the shores of Ireland, shamed and defeated. 

Back to their Wessex home, went the two brothers; 
King and ^theling, came to their own again, 
5 Victors in triumph returned from the war; 
Leaving behind the horn-billed raven 
The gloomy-coated, to glut on the carcasses; 
Leaving behind the white-tailed eagle 
Perched on the corpses to prey on the carrion ; 
10 Leaving behind the haggard kite, 

And the gray- wolf gaunt to gorge on the slain. 

Never was made a mightier slaughter; 
Never sword reaped a ruddier harvest 
Of high-born heroes, here in this island, 
15 Since hither of old, Angles and Saxons, 

— So say the chronicles, — sailed from the eastward. 
Crossed o'er the billows, to conquer the Britons ; 
When haughty battle-smiths hammered the Welshmen 
And honor-keen earls first entered this realm. 



THE BATTLE OF MALDON 
(991 A.D.) 

The beginning of the poem is lost. The first sixteen lines of the 
remaining portion describe how Byrhtnoth's men, arrived at the 
battle field, dismount and turn their horses loose, how one of them 
sends his hawk flying to the wood, and how the East Saxon alder- 
man proceeds to marshal his band on the banks of the stream. 
The poem continues as follows : 



THE BATTLE OF MALDON 165 

Byrhtnoth encouraged his comrades heartily; (17) 
Rode through the ranks and roused their spirits; 
Marshalled his men to meet the onset; 
Showed them how they should hold their shields 
5 Firm in their grip, and fearless stand. 
When he had briskly whetted their courage, 
He leaped from his steed and stood with his people, 
His hearth-band beloved and household thanes. 

Then strode to the strand a stalwart Northman, 
10 The viking herald. They heard him shout, 

Send o'er the tide the taunt of the pirates; 

Hailing the earl, he hurled this challenge: , 

"Bold sea-rovers bade me tell thee 

Straightway thou must send them tribute, 
15 Rings for ransom, royal treasure; 

Better with gifts ye buy us off. 

Ere w^e deal hard blows and death in battle. 

Why spill we blood when the bargain is easy ? 

Give us the pay and w-e grant ye peace. 
20 n thou dost agree, who art greatest here. 

To ransom thy folk with the fee w^e demand. 

And give to the seamen the gold they ask, 

Pay with tribute for treaty of peace. 

We load the booty aboard our ships, 
25 Haul to sea and hold the truce." 

Byrhtnoth spake, he brandished his spear. 

Lifted his shield and shouted aloud, 

Grim w^as his wrath as he gave them his answer: 

"Hearest thou, pirate, my people's reply? 
30 Ancient sw^ords they will send for ransom; 

Poison-tipped points they will pay for tribute; 



1 66 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Treasure that scarce will serve you in battle. (48) 
Go back pirate, give them my answer ; 
Bring them this word of bitter defiance; 
Tell them here standeth, stern and intrepid, 
5 The earl with his folk, to defend his country, 
u^thelred's realm, the rights of my lord. 
His house and his home; the heathen shall fall. 
Pirates and robbers. My people were shamed 
If ye loaded our booty aboard your ships, 
10 And floated them off unf ought for, to sea. 
Having sailed so far, to set foot on our soil. 
Not all so easily earn ye our gold ! 
Sword-blades and spear-points we sell you first; 
Battle-play grim, ere ye get our tribute !" 

15 Forward he told his troop to come. 

To step under shield and stand by the shore. 
The breadth of the stream kept the bands asunder; 
Strong came flowing the flood after ebb. 
Filled the channel, and foamed between them. 

20 Impatient stood by Panta stream, 

East-Saxon host and horde of the pirates, 
Longing to lock their lances in battle. 
Neither could harass or harm the other, 
Save that some fell by the flight of arrows. 

25 Down went the tide, the Danes were ready; 

Burned for battle the band of the Vikings; 

On the bridge stood Wulfstan, and barred their way. 

Byrhtnoth sent him, a seasoned warrior, 

Ceola's son, with his kinsmen to hold it. 
30 The first of the Vikings who ventured to set 



THE BATTLE OF MALDON 167 

Foot on the bridge, he felled with his spear. (^8) 

Two sturdy warriors stood with Wtilfstan, 

Maccus and ^Ifhere, mighty pair, 

Kept the approach where the crossing was shallow ; 
5 Defended the bridge, and fought with the boldest, 

As long as their hands could lift a sword. 

When the strangers discovered and clearly saw 

What bitter fighters the bridgewards proved, 

They tried a trick, the treacherous robbers, 
10 Begged they might cross, and bring their crews 

Over the shallows, and up to the shore. 

The earl was ready, in reckless daring. 

To let them land too great a number. 

Byrhthelm's son, while the seamen listened, 
15 Called across, o'er the cold water: 

"Come ye seamen, come and fight us ! 

We give you ground, but God alone knows 

Who to-day shall hold the field." 

Strode the battle-wolves bold through the water; 
20 West over Panta waded the pirates ; 

Carried their shields o'er the shining waves; 

Safely their lindenwoods landed the sailors. 

Byrhtnoth awaited them, braced for the onslaught, 

Haughty and bold at the head of his band. 
2 5 Bade them build the bristling war-hedge. 

Shield against shield, to shatter the enemy. 

Near was the battle, now for the glory, 

Now for the death of the doomed in the field. 

Swelled the war-cry, circled the ravens, 
30 Screamed the eagle, eager for prey; 

Sped from the hand the hard-forged spear-head. 



i68 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Showers of darts, sharp from the grindstone. (lop) 
Bows were busy, bolt stuck in buckler; 
Bitter the battle-rush, brave men fell. 
Heroes on either hand, hurt in the fray. 
5 Wounded was Wulfmser, went to his battle-rest; 
Cruelly mangled, kinsman of Byrhtnoth, 
Son of his sister, slain on the field. 

Pay of vengeance they paid the Vikings; 

I heard of the deed of the doughty Edward: 
lo He struck with his sword a stroke that was mighty, 

Down fell the doomed man, dead at his feet. 

For this the thane got the thanks of his leader. 

Praise that was due for his prowess in fight. 

Grimly they held their ground in the battle, 
15 Strove with each other the stout-hearted heroes. 

Strove with each other, eager to strike 

First with their darts the foe that was doomed. 

Warriors thronged, the wounded lay thick. 

Stalwart and steady they stood about Byrhtnoth. 
20 Bravely he heartened them, bade them to win 

Glory in battle by beating the Danes. 

Raising his shield, he rushed at the enemy; 

Covered by buckler, he came at a Viking; 

Charged him furious, earl against churl, 
25 Each for the other had evil in store. 

The sailorman sent from the south a javelin. 

Sorely wounding the war-band's leader; 

He shoved with his shield, the shaft snapped short; 

The spear was splintered and sprang against him; 
30 Wroth was Byrhtnoth, reached for his weapon; 

Gored the Viking that gave him the wound. 



THE BATTLE OF MALDON 169 

Straight went the lance, strong was the leader; {140) 
Sheer through the throat of the pirate he thrust it. 
His dart meant death, so deadly his aim. 
Swiftly he sent him a second javelin, 
5 That crashed through the corslet and cleft his bosom, 
Wounded him sore through his woven mail; 
The poisonous spear-head stood in his heart. 
Blithe was the leader, laughed in his breast, 
Thanked his Lord for that day's work. 

10 Now one of the pirates poised his weapon; 

Sped from his hand a spear that wounded 

Through and through the thane of ^thelred. 

There stood at his side a stripling youth; 

Brave was the boy ; he bent o'er his lord, 
15 Drew from his body the blood-dripping dart. 

'Twas Wulfmaer the youthful, Wulf Stan's son; 

Back he hurled the hard-forged spear. 

In went the point, to earth fell the pirate 

Who gave his master the mortal hurt. 
20 A crafty seaman crept toward the earl. 

Eager to rob him of armor and rings, 

Bracelets and gear and graven sword. 

Then Byrhtnoth drew his blade from the sheath, 

Broad and blood-stained, struck at the breast-plate. 
25 But one of the seamen stopped the warrior. 

Beat down the arm of the earl with his lance. 

Fell to the ground the gray-hilted sword; 

No more he might grasp his goodly blade, 

Wield his weapon; yet words he could utter; 
30 The hoar-headed warrior heartened his men; 

Bade them forward to fare and be brave. 



170 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

When the stricken leader no longer could stand, 
He looked to heaven and lifted his voice: (-^7^) 

"I render Thee thanks O Ruler of men, 
For the joys Thou hast given, that gladdened my life. 
5 Merciful Maker, now most I need, 

Thy goodness to grant me a gracious end. 
That my soul may swiftly speed to Thee, 
Come to Thy keeping, O King of angels, 
Depart in peace. I pray Thee Lord 
lo That the fiends of hell may not harm my spirit." 
The heathen pirates then hewed him to pieces. 
And both the brave men that by him stood ; 
yElfnoth and Wulfmser, wounded to death, 
Gave their lives for their lord in the fight. 

1 5 Then quitted the field the cowards and faint-hearts ; 
The son of Odda started the flight. 
Godric abandoned his good lord in battle. 
Who many a steed had bestowed on his thane. 
Leaped on the horse that belonged to his leader, 

20 Not his were the trappings, he had no right to them. 
Both of his brothers basely fled with him, 
Godwin and Godwy, forgetful of honor. 
Turned from the fight, and fled to the woods. 
Seeking the cover, and saving their lives. 

25 Those were with them, who would have remained, 
Had they remembered how many favors 
Their lord had done them in days of old. 
Offa foretold it, what time he arose 
To speak where they met to muster their forces. 

30 Many, he said, were mighty in words 

Whose courage would fail when it came to fighting. 



THE BATTLE OF MALDON 171 

There lay on the field the lord of the people, (202) 
^thelred's earl ; all of them saw him, 
His hearth-companions beheld him dead. 
Forward went fighting the fearless warriors, 
5 Their courage was kindled, no cowards were they; 
Their will was fixed on one or the other: 
To lose their life, or avenge their leader 
^Ifwine spoke to them, son of ^Ifric, 
Youthful in years, but unyielding in battle; 

10 Roused their courage, and called them to honor: 
''Remember the time when we talked in the mead-hall, 
When bold on our benches we boasted our valor, 
Deeds of daring we'd do in the battle! 
Now we may prove whose prowess is true. 

1 5 My birth and my breeding I boldly proclaim : 
I am sprung from a mighty Mercian line. 
Aldhelm the alderman, honored and prosperous, 
He was my grandsire, great was his fame : 
My people who know me shall never reproach me, 

20 Say I was ready to run from the battle, 
Back to my home, and abandon my leader. 
Slain on the field. My sorrow is double. 
Both kinsman and lord I've lost in the fight." 
Forward he threw himself, thirsting for vengeance; 

25 Sent his javelin straight at a pirate. 
Fell with a crash his foe to the earth, 
His life-days ended. Then onward he strode, 
Urging his comrades to keep in the thick of it. 

Up spake Off a, with ashen spear lifted: 
30 "Well hast thou counselled us, well hast encouraged; 
Noble ^Ifwine, needs must we follow thee. 



172 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Now that our leader lies low on the field, (^33) 

Needs must we steadfastly stand by each other, 
Close in the conflict keeping together. 
As long as our hands can hold a weapon, 
5 Good blade wield. Godric the coward. 
Son of Odda, deceived us all. 
Too many believed 'twas our lord himself, 
When they saw him astride the war-steed proud. 
His run-away ride our ranks hath broken, 

lo Shattered the shield-wall. Shame on the dastard, 
Who caused his comrades like cowards to fly !" 
Up spake Leofsunu, lifted his linden- wood. 
Answered his comrades from under his shield: 
"Here I stand, and here shall I stay ! 

15 Not a foot will I flinch, but forward I'll go! 
Vengeance I've vowed for my valiant leader. 
Now that my friend is fallen in battle, 
My people shall never reproach me, in Stourmere ; 
Call me deserter, and say I returned, 

20 Leaderless, lordless, alone from the fight. 
Better is battle-death; boldly I welcome 
The edge and the iron." Full angry he charged, 
Daring all danger, disdaining to fly. 

Up spake Dunhere, old and faithful, 

25 Shook his lance and shouted aloud, 

Bade them avenge the valiant Byrhtnoth : 
''Wreak on the Danes the death of our lord! 
Unfit is for vengeance who values his life." 
Fell on the foe the faithful body-guard, 

30 Battle-wroth spearmen, beseeching God 

That they might avenge the thane of ^Ethelred, 



THE BATTLE OF MALDON 173 

Pay the heathen with havoc and slaughter. (^<^4) 

The son of Ecglaf, iEscferth by name, 
Sprung from a hardy North-humbrian race, 
— He was their hostage, — helped them manfully. 
5 Never he faltered or flinched in the war-play ; 
Lances a plenty he launched at the pirates. 
Shot them on shield, or sheer through the breast-plate ; 
Rarely he missed them, many he wounded. 
While he could wield his weapon in battle. 

10 Still Edward the long held out at the front; 
Brave and defiant, he boasted aloud 
That he would not yield a hair's breadth of ground, 
Nor turn his back where his better lay dead. 
He broke through the shield-wall, breasted the foe, 

15 Worthily paid the pirate warriors 

For the life of his lord ere he laid him down. 
Near him ^thelric, noble comrade. 
Brother of Sibryht, brave and untiring. 
Mightily fought, and many another; 

20 Hacked the hollow shields, holding their own. 
Bucklers were broken the breast-plate sang 
Its gruesome song. The sword of Ofifa 
Went home to the hilt in the heart of a Viking. 
But Off a himself soon had to pay for it, 

25 The kinsman of Gadd succumbed in the fight. 
Yet ere he fell, he fulfilled his pledge, 
The promise he gave to his gracious lord. 
That both should ride to their burg together. 
Home to their friends, or fall in the battle, 

30 Killed in conflict and covered with wounds; 
He lay by his lord, a loyal thane. 



174 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Mid clash of shields the shipmen came on, (^P5) 

Maddened by battle. Full many a lance 
Home was thrust to the heart of the doomed. 
Then sallied forth Wistan, Wigelin's son; 
5 Three of the pirates he pierced in the throng, 

Ere he fell, by his friends, on the field of slaughter. 
Bitter the battle-rush, bravely struggled 
Heroes in armor, while all around them 
The wounded dropped and the dead lay thick. 

10 Oswold and Eadwold all the while 

Their kinsmen and comrades encouraged bravely, 
Both of the brothers bade their friends 
Never to weaken or weary in battle. 
But keep up their sword-play, keen to the end. 

15 Up spake Byrhtwold, brandished his ash-spear, 
— He was a tried and tjr^de old hero, — 
Lifted his shield and loudly called to them: 
"Heart must be keener, courage the hardier, 
Bolder our mood as our band diminisheth. 

20 Here lies in his blood our leader and comrade. 
The brave on the beach. Bitter shall rue it 
Who turns his back on the battle-field now. 
Here I stay; I am stricken and old; 
My life is done; I shall lay me down 

25 Close by my lord and comrade dear." 

[Six more lines and the MS. breaks off. There cannot have 
been much left The battle is over. The words of old Byrhtwold 
make a fitting close for these renderings of Old English verse.] 



NOTES 

AIDS TO THE STUDY OF OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

What the study of classic antiquity is to the later and 
greater periods of English literature, the study of Germanic 
antiquity is to the period of its earliest beginnings. This 
study has been unduly neglected in our schools and colleges, 
because of the inaccessibility and highly technical character 
of most of the literature connected with the subject. The 
following brief book-list is confined to works accessible in 
English, and not too technical for the student and general 
reader. It is in no sense a ''bibliography," and the strict 
limitation to books in English has compelled the omission of 
even so excellent a little volume as Axel Olrik's Nordisches 
Geisfesleben, or such noble essays as Uhland's on the Thor 
and the Odin Myth, or so thoroughly readable a book as Gol- 
ther's Germanische Mythologie, all of which deserve to be 
translated into English. *Starred books are especially rec- 
ommended. 

Mythology. J. S. Stallybrass, Teutonic Mythology, 
translated from the 4th ed. of Jacob Grimm's Deutsche My- 
thologie. A standard work of reference. — M. S. Smith, 
"^Northern Mythology (Temple Primers), translated from 
the German of Professor D. F. Kaufmann. The best brief 
sketch of Germanic mythology. — Anderson, The Prose 
Edda. — Vigfusson and Powell, Corpus Poeticiim Boreale. 
Gives the poetic Edda, in the original, with a prose transla- 
tion at the foot of the page. — The Mythologie Poems of the 
Edda, edited and translated with Introduction and Notes by 
Olive Bray, Viking Club Series. 

Heroic Legend and Saga. M. B. Smith, "^Northern 
Hero Legends (Temple Primers), from the German of 
O. Jiriczek. Axel Olrik, "^Heroic Legends of Denmark, 
translated by Lee Hollander and published by the Ameri- 
can-Scandinavian Foundation as the fourth volume in its 
series of Scandinavian monographs. Especially important 

175 



^ 



176 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

for the study of the Saga-material in Beowulf. H. M. 
Chadwick, The Heroic Age, Cambridge University Press, 
1912. Origin of the English Nation, 1907. Miss M. G. 
Clark, Sidelights on Teutonic History During the Migration 
Period. W. P. Ker, The Dark Ages. R. W. Chambers, 
"^Beowulf, An Introduction to the Study of the Poem, 192 1. 

Norse Sagas. "^The Volsunga Saga, translated by Mag- 
nusson and Morris (Camelot Series). — The Grettis Saga, 
by the same. — ^The Njals Saga. (Abridged from original 
ed. of Sir G. W. Dasent, Grant Richards, Everyman Library 
1900.) — Saxo Grammaticus, translated by Oliver Elton. 
The Danish History of Saxo is a mine of legendary lore. 
W. S. Collingwood and Jon Stefansson, A Pilgrimage to 
the Saga-steads of Ireland 1899. Illustrated. By the same. 
The Life and Death of Cormac the Skald, being the Ice- 
landic Kormaks Saga rendered into English. 1902. Illus- 
trated. E. Magnusson and W. Morris, Three Northern 
Love Stories and Other Tales, Translated from the Ice- 
landic. Longmans Green & Co., London 1901. The Ameri- 
can-Scandinavian Foundation (25 W. 45th St., New York. 
Henry Goddard Leach, secretary) publishes a series of 
Scandinavian sagas and monographs. 

Germanic Institutions. F. B. Gummere, "^'Germanic 
Origins. The best survey of the subject in English. Knut 
Stjerna, Essays on Beowulf (trns. J. R. Clark Hall) Viking 
Club Extra Series Vol. III. Illustrated. Paul du Chaillu, 
The Viking Age. Every student of Old English literature 
should be familiar with the Germania of Tacitus, at least in 
translation. 

Histories of Old English Literature. The best gen- 
eral history of this period is Bernhard Ten Brink's Early 
English Literature, translated by H. M. Kennedy (Henry 
Holt and Co.). The best aesthetic criticism of Old English 
Literature is found in the books of Stopford Brooke, The 
History of Early English Literature and English Literature 
from the Beginning to the Norman Conquest; the first is a 
detailed study of Old English Poetry ; the second is a briefer 
recast of the first, with added chapters on King Alfred and 
West Saxon prose. Stopford Brooke writes with a fine ap- 
preciation of the poetic values of Old English verse. His 
translations are spirited, though their diction tends to be 



NOTES 177 

too archaic, and they often miss the rhythms of the original. 
See also the chapter on the Old English Period in Vol. I 
of the Cambridge History of English Literature. W. P. 
Ker, Epic and Romance, a stimulating study of Germanic 
epic. The same author's "^History of English Literature 
(Medieval) in the Home Library Series, Henry Holt & Co. 
W. M. Hart, Ballad and Epic (Vol. XI of Harvard Studies 
and Notes, Ginn and Co., 1907). A valuable study in early 
literary forms. 

Old English Poetry. The introductions to the volumes 
of the Belles Lettres (D. C. Heath and Co.) and the Albion 
(Ginn and Co.) series of Anglo-Saxon poetry contain much 
of interest to the general student of Old English Literature. 
Professor Gummere's Oldest English Epic translates into 
English alliterative verse Widsith, Dear's Lament, The 
Finnshurg Fragment, The Waldere Fragments, and the whole 
of Beowulf: the best complete verse translation of Beowulf, 
remarkably close to the rhythm and language of the original. 
The same poems, ''Done in Common English after the old 
manner," by C. E. Scott-Moncriefif, Dutton, 192 1. For other 
references to Beowulf literature and translations, see 
notes on Beowulf, p. 197. Cook and Tinker, Translations 
from Old English Poetry, and Faust and Thompson, Old 
English Poems (Scott, Foresman & Co., 1918), contain se- 
lections of Old English Poetry exclusive of Beowulf, the 
latter in the original metres. For the Christian Poetry see 
A. J. Barnouw, Anglo-Saxon Christian Poetry, translated by 
Louise Dudley. The best survey of Caedmon and Cyne- 
wulf criticism will be found in the excellent introductions 
to Professor Kennedy's prose translations of the Poems of 
Cynewulf and of the Caedmon Poems (E. P. Dutton, 1910 
and 1916). For Gnomic Poetry see the introduction to 
Miss B. C. Williams' Gnomic Poetry in Anglo-Saxon (Co- 
lumbia University Press, 1914). 

THE OLD ENGLISH ALLITERATIVE METRE 

Anglo-Saxon poetry from its earliest beginnings to the 
Norman Conquest was composed in the ancient alliterative 
measure common to all the people of Germanic stock. 
Though this measure continued to be used in England after 
the Conquest (see Layamon's Brut, Sir Gawayne, Piers 



178 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Ploughman) , even as late as the sixteenth century, it grad- 
ually declined during the Middle English period, and was 
either supplanted or fundamentally modified by measures of 
foreign origin. For a brief discussion of Old English 
metre, see Professor Gummere's Handbook of Poetics, Chap. 
VII (Ginn and Co.), and Professor R. M. Alden's English 
Verse (Henry Holt and Co.). For a differing but stimulat- 
ing discussion of Old EngHsh rhythms by a scholar who is 
himself a poet, see William Ellery Leonard, University of 
Wisconsin Studies in Literature and Philology No. 2. 

1. The Four-Stress Alliterative Line. Old English 
rhythms are based on the Germanic law of accentuation, ac- 
cording to which the most important words or parts of 
words were emphasized by a strong stress of the voice. 
This involved the subordination of quantitative accent based 
on the length of syllables, to stress accent based on their 
significance^ When such stressed accents or beats of the 
voice recur at regular intervals, we perceive rhythm; and 
even though the intervals between the individual beats may 
vary, our sense of rhythm will be awakened if we can note 
a regular recurrence of groups of heats, in twos or threes or 
fours. Now the chief characteristic of Old English verse 
is that its words were so arranged that there was a constant 
recurrence of two pairs of heavy beats, and that the most 
important of these heavy beats began with the same sound 
(alliteration). This gives us as the unit of Old English 
verse a line of four heats, divided into two halves by a 
pause, hut linked together hy alliteration. 

Hyge sceal J^e heardra., heorte J^e cenre ; 
Mod sceal })e wara, })e ure mcegen lytlaJD. 

— Battle of Maid on. 
(Heart must be keener, courage the hardier; 
Bolder our mood, as our band diminisheth.) 

2. Alliteration. When words or syllables begin with 
the same sound, they are said to alliterate. Alliteration is 
still used in English verse, but it is largely ornamental and 
casual, as e.g. in Shelley's Cloud: 



NOTES 179 

That orbed msLidcn, with white fire laden 

Whom wiortals call the moon 
G/ides ^/immering o'er my /?eece-Hke ^oor 

By the midnight breezes strewn. 

In Old English poetry, on the other hand, alliteration was 
structural and regular. As it was much older than writing, 
it was and is concerned with sounds, not letters. King and 
cook keep good company in alliteration, though they begin 
with different letters. King and knight do not, though they 
begin with the same letter.^ Furthermore, as alliteration 
was addressed to the ear and not to the eye, it always fell 
on stressed syllables. Thus forsaken and feeble do not al- 
literate, even though they begin with the same sounds ; while 
forsake and beseech do alliterate, though they begin with 
different sounds. In the latter case for and be are merely 
prefixes, and stress and alliteration alike fall on the sig- 
nificant syllables. As in the great majority of Old English 
words the first syllable was the significant syllable, both 
stress and alliteration generally fall on first syllables. Take 
these lines : 

The folk of the fen in /ormer days (p. 42, 1. 27) 
Named him Grendel : unknozvn his father. 
Or what his cf^scent from (f^rmons obscure. 

In "named" and "unknown," the alliteration, though not 
apparent, is real. In "descent" and "demons," on the other 
hand, the alliteration, though apparent, is not real, because 
it does not fall on the stressed syllable in "descent." 

As the function of alliteration in Germanic verse is to link 
together the two halves of the four-stress line, the first 
stressed syllable of the second half-verse must always be a 
member of the alliterative group. We may therefore call 
this syllable the alliterative dominant. In the majority of 
cases both stressed syllables of the first half-verse alliterate 
with the dominant. When only one of them alliterates, it 
is preferably the first, but it may be the second. Examples 
of the three resulting types of alliteration in the order of 
their frequency follow : 

1 In Old and Middle English when the k of knight was still pro- 
nounced, they of course alliterated. 



i8o OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

1:2:3: Gewat J)a ofer W(Tgho\m winde gefysed 

Flota, /amigheals, fugle gelicost. (Beowulf, 1. 217.) 
(Went then o'er the wave-sesL, by the wind favored 
The floater foamy-necked, to a fowl likest.) 

1:3: On flodes seht feor gewitan (1. 42). 
(In the flood's power far to wander.) 

2:3: Geseah he in recede rincsi manige (1. 728). 

(Saw he in the wine-hsAl of warriors a many.) 

The fourth stress never alHterates with the third, or domi- 
nant in Old EngHsh verse of the classic period, but it may 
alHterate with the second and rarely with the first, when 
these are not in alliteration with the dominant. This gives 
us two additional types of alliteration. 
1:3:2:4 (alternating alliteration) : 

Hilde-wcepnum and heapo-zvcednm. (1. 39). 
(With brave weapons and &artle- weeds.) 

1:4:2:3: Wit t)3et gecwcsdon cniht-wesende (1. 535). 

(We that boasted when boys we were.) 
All vowels alliterate : 

Isig and utius cupeVmges fser (1. 33). 

(Icy and outbound, etheVmg's barge.) 

Inn2Ln and utan ^Venbendum (1. 774). 

(Inside and outside with iron bands.) 

3. The Pause or G^sura. The Old English alliterative 
line is regularly divided into two half-verses by a pause be- 
tween the second and third stress. This ccesura is some- 
times merely rhythmic, sometimes it is a sense pause. Com- 
pare these two lines : 

Ofer hronrade hyran scolde, (1. 10) 
Gomban gyldan: t)3et wses god cyning! 

or these : 

Willing comrades may crowd around him (1. 23) 
Eager and true. In every tribe, etc. 

Though the caesura always comes between the second and 
third stress, it does not always come in the middle of the 
line, as the half-verses may be of unequal length. Compare : 



NOTES i8i 

Grette Geata leod,||gode })ancode 

Wisfsest wordum, I liases l)e hire se willa gelamp 

(1-625). 

Monotony is avoided by this ineqiiahty in the length of half- 
verses (see next section, unstressed syllables), and by run- 
on lines, where the meaning "runs on" from the end of one 
line into the next (enjambment) . Compare 

Egsode eorl, sy})l)an aerest wear}) (6) 

Feasceaft funden; he \)ses frofre gebad. 

Or 

Then climbed aboard 
The chosen troop; the tide was churning 
Sea against sand; they stowed away 
In the hold of the ship their shining armor, etc. 

In spite of such devices, the fixed caesura is responsible for 
a certain monotony in the movement of Old English epic 
verse, in striking contrast to the rich modulations of Greek 
epic verse or the epic verse of Milton and Tennyson, with 
its free treatment of the caesura. 

4. Unstressed Syllables. While the number of stressed 
syllables in Old English verse is constant,^ the number of 
unstressed syllables varies freely. Compare the following 
lines : 

God mid Geatum, Grendles dseda (1. 195). 

Gewat l^a ofer wzegholm winde gefysed (1. 217). 

Gewat him J^a to waro})e wicge ridan (1. 234). 

Se l^e his wordes geweald wide heefde (1. 79). 

Manna sengum, J)ara })e hit mid mundum bewand 

(1. 1461). 

Unstressed syllables are added most freely at the beginning 
of the second half-verse. The varieties of half-verses have 
been reduced by Professor Sievers to five fundamental 
types, but a discussion of them is beyond the scope of this 
note. (For a brief statement of Sievers' types see Alden, 
p. 152.) The most important result of the Old EngHsh 

1 In the expanded or "long line" that is sometimes found, (see 
Fall of Man and Vision of the Cross), there are three stressed 
syllables in each half-verse or bar. 



i82 OLD ENGLISH POEi x 

freedom with regard to unaccented syllables is variation in 
the rapidity of the verse, or tempo. 

Gewat J)a ofer wsegholm, winde gefysed 
is a rapid line, and admirably suggests the buoyant move- 
ment of the boat. 

Gomban gyldan : l)3et wses god cyning 
(Gave him gold, 'twas a good king) 

is a slow line, and suggests weight and dignity. The impor- 
tance of the proportion of stressed to unstressed syllables in 
the tempo of verse-rhythm may be illustrated by a compari- 
son between Old English and blank verse. Blank verse be- 
longs to the "syllable-counting" variety of English verse, i.e. 
there are normally ten syllables in every line, five unaccented 
syllables alternating with five accented. This is the metri- 
cal scheme of the iambic pentameter. (We need not here 
touch on the moot question of the relation of quantity to 
stress. While the length of syllables is by no means a neg- 
ligible factor, either in old or modern English verse, the fact 
remains that English rhythms, old ^r modern, are based on 
the Germanic stress accent, to \ xch quantity has been 
made subordinate.) The following line from Paradise Lost 
is a "normal" iambic pentameter so far as number of syl- 
lables and accents are concerned: 

And swims or sinks or wades or creeps or flies ' 

It has however an abnormal number of pauses. Ii c 
subject a number of consecutive lines of Paradise Lost to 
the test of reading aloud, we shall note that Milton not only 
constantly departs from the scheme of regular alternation of 
unaccented with accented syllables, but that even the num- 
ber of main stresses in each line varies considerably. Thus 
in the first sixteen lines of Paradise Lost, there are ten lines 
with four main stresses, two with three, and only four 
lines with the "normal" number of five. Moreove,; the line 

For Hot, Cold, Moist, and Dry, four champions fierce 

has seven accents ; and the line 

Rocks, Caves, Lakes, Fens, Bogs, Dens and Shades of Death 

has even eight. In all these Hues the number of syllables 
remains practically constant. Now, when the number of 



NOTES 183 

main stresses is reduced, the tempo of the line is accelerated ; 
when the number of accents is increased the tempo of the 
line is retarded. 
Compare 

In the beginning how the heavens and earth 
with 
O'er bog, o'er steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare. 

In iambic pentameter, therefore, the tempo is modified by 
varying the number of main stresses, while the number of 
syllables remains constant. In Old English verse, on the other 
hand, the tempo is modified by varying the number of syl- 
lables, while the main stresses remain constant. Funda- 
mentally different as is the rhythm of blank verse from that 
of the Old English alliterative line, it is interesting to note 
that owing to this variability of tempo, individual lines with 
identical rhythm may be found : 

Rose out of Chaos: or if Sion hill (Paradise Lost). 

HynJ)u and hrafyl. Ic {)aes Hrothgar mseg (Beowulf). 

Strongly to suffer a.' support our pains (Paradise Lost). 

Swaese gesij)as, swa ne self a bad (Beowulf). 

5. Rising and Falling Rhythms. The rhythm of Old 
EngHsh verse is predominatingly falling, i.e. the rhythmic 
'"s are composed of stressed followed by unstressed syl- 
s: 

GuJDmod grummon, guman onetton 
is a typical line. Examples of falling rhythms in modern 
English are 

Tell me not in mournful numbers (trochaic) 
and 

Solemnly, mournfully, dealing its dole (dactylic). 
Of rising rhythms 

To otrive, to seek, to find and not to yield (iambic) 
and 

I saw from the beach when the morning was shining 
A bark o'er the waters move gloriously on (anapcestic) . 

The reason for the prevalence of falling rhythms (''dactylic" 
and ''trochaic") is inherent in the structure of Old English, 
which was rich in light formative syllables, added to the 



1 84 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

root. In modern English these formative syllables have 
dropped off, often being replaced by particles preceding the 
root. In every such case a naturally falling rhythm has been 
changed into a naturally rising rhythm. Cf. Old English 
jm^aw (falling), with to sing (rising); Codes lufu with 
the love of God; Welandes geweorc with the work of Way- 
land. Accordingly, rising rhythm (iambic, anapaestic) seems 
to be more natural to the genius of modern English than to 
that of Old English, whose falling rhythms fit it so well for 
describing the crash of combat, and the blows of sword and 
battle-axe, falling on helmet and shield. 

6. Coincidence of Rhythmic and Emphatic Stress. 
One of the most important differences between Old English 
epic verse and modern EngHsh epic verse, as found, e.g., in 
Milton and Tennyson, remains to be stated. In Old Eng- 
lish verse there is never any conflict between rhythmic and 
emphatic stress, i.e. between the stress required by the metric 
scheme and the stress required by the meaning of the line. 
In reading Old English verse, if the words important to 
the sense are strongly emphasized, and the unimportant 
words are hurried over, the rhythm will invariably be 
brought out. On the other hand, if the opening passage of 
Paradise Lost is accented according to the sense alone, some- 
thing very like prose will result. While if we accent ac- 
cording to the metric scheme alone, and without any regard 
to the sense, something very like sing-song will result. The 
music of Milton's blank verse, and of all great English 
blank verse, is due to the free interplay and balanced con- 
flict between sense and rhythm. You must read with the 
rhythm in your ear, and the sense in your mind. There is 
consequently a double focus for the attention, a rhythmic 
and a logical. In Old English poetry rhythmic and logical 
focus coincide. The rhythmic structure of Old EngHsh 
verse may be compared to the old Germanic hall, whose four 
solid corner posts squarely support the burden of the roof. 
While English blank verse may be compared to a Gothic 
cathedral, whose groined ceiling seems to hover overhead 
upheld by the interplay of complicated thrusts taken up by 
arch and buttress and clustered column. 



NOTES 185 

THE RENDERING OF THE OLD ALLITERATIVE LINE IN MODERN 

FORM 

Any attempt to reproduce exactly and accurately the Old 
English alliterative line must necessarily fail, first because 
the language has changed, and second because our ear has 
changed with it. The ''gait" of English verse has become 
smoother and more regular ; and the rider accustomed to the 
pace of a well broken saddle-horse is apt to be unseated by 
the gait of a Pegasus that bucks. It is especially the second 
half-verses with their initial rush of unaccented syllables 
that are trying to the modern ear. In a line like the fol- 
lowing : 

Manna sengum J^ara t)e hit mid mundum bewand, 

where the second half-verse starts with a mad career of 
unstressed syllables and then brings up suddenly on two 
heavy stresses, the incautious rider is apt to come a cropper 
at the close. 

Again, the juxtaposition of stressed syllables is much 
more common in Old English than in modern English verse, 
and offers another difficulty to the modern ear. Cf. such 
a line as 

Ongan ceallian ])a, ofer ceald water. 
(Began calling then o'er the cold water). 

The only way to get accurately the movement of Old Eng- 
lish verse is to learn to read it in Old English. But it is 
not impossible to reproduce for a wider circle of readers 
the spirit of the old rhythm, by preserving its essential 
features in a form adapted to the requirements of modern 
English speech. These essential features, which any trans- 
lation professing to reproduce the old alliterative line must 
preserve, are the following: 

1. The Four-Stress Line. 

Glory great was given to Beowulf. 

2. The Medial C^sura. 

Done were his days ; the Danes were glad. 

Unless a passage like the following clearly strikes the ear 
as exceptional, the translation fails to reproduce one of the 
most important features of Old English metre: 



i86 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Spray-frosted trees o'erspread it, and hang 

O'er the water, with roots hard-wedged in the rocks. 

3. The Alliterative Scheme, based on the first stressed 
syllable of the second half-verse, the "alliterative dominant." 
Nearly all the verses in our translation will be found to con- 
form to one of the five alliterative types given above. In 
the few instances where there is no alliteration, or where 
two stresses in the second half-verse alliterate (see espe- 
cially the lyrics), metrical considerations have been waived 
in the interest of poetry. The proportion of 1:2:3 aUiter- 
ations, however, is much less, and of alternating allitera- 
tions 1:3:2:4, and 1:4:2:3 is much greater than in Old 
English. 

4. The Prevalence of Falling Rhythm. The pre- 
ponderance of falHng rhythms, with their heavy stresses on 
the beginnings of words or word groups, must be main- 
tained at all hazards. Though it is undoubtedly true that 
the prevalent "natural" rhythm, for narrative verse at any 
rate, in Modern Enghsh has become rising (iambic), it is 
too much to say with Swinburne that "dactylic forms of 
verse are unnatural and abhorrent to the English language," 
unless we use the word dactylic strictly in the classic sense 
as a quantitative foot. On the other hand, the loss of in- 
flectional syllables, which has changed hundreds of dissyl- 
labic words {singan, sing ; Codes, God's or of God; scipu: 
ships, etc.) into monosyllables, seriously affects the propor- 
tion of masculine to feminine endings of half-verses, upon 
which so much of the total effect of the verse- rhythm de- 
pends. In the first 100 lines of Beowulf, 81 of the first 
half-verses, and 71 of the second half-verses have feminine 
endings, i.e. end with an unstressed syllable. If we com- 
pare the first selection in our translation, we find that in 52 
lines 43 first half-verses and 37 second half-verses have 
feminine endings in the original, while only 17 first half- 
verses, and 25 second half-verses have feminine endings in 
the translation. 

5. Variation of Speed or Tempo, due to irregular num- 
ber of unstressed syllables. Modern English does not per- 
mit the same freedom as Old English in the use of un- 



NOTES 187 

stressed syllables, especially at the beginning of the half- 
verses (anakrusis). But the translator must avoid going to 
the other extreme of awaking the sense for the regular 
tempo of iambic or trochaic four-stress rhythm (octosyl- 
labic verse). A succession of lines such as this: 

Of little use that Hfe he deemed 
or: 

Do thy best now, dearest Beowulf 
Shield thy life and show thy valor 

would utterly fail to reproduce the variety of movement, 
and the often breathless haste of Old English verse, though 
reproducing faithfully enough the four beats, the medial 
caesura, and the alliteration on the significant syllables. On 
the other hand, a prevailingly dactylic or anapaestic move- 
ment, the ''tumbling measure" of later verse, would be too 
light and rapid. Compare e.g. the tempo of Piers Ploughman 
with that of the Beowulf selections. The elimination of 
many of the ''hypermetric" syllables of the anakrusis, and 
their more even distribution between stresses, together with 
the unavoidable neglect of the quantity of stressed syllables 
in Old English, has probably given to our translation a 
somewhat lighter and more rapid movement, in its total 
effect, than the hammer-blow style of the Old English verse. 
6. Coincidence of Rhythmic and Emphatic Stress. 
This is one of the most essential features to be preserved. 
Significant words must receive the rhythmic stress. No 
words of minor significance (particles, prepositions, etc.) 
must require the rhythmic stress. 

I stand by thee to the end. 

This line breaks the rule by the emphasis it places on by and 
to. The irregularity here is intentional, and was introduced 
for a certain dramatic effect, which the Old English poet 
could obtain by other means. 

Though we are accustomed to think and write of the Ger- 
manic alliterative measure as obsolete, or having only an 
antiquarian and philological interest, it would be easy to 
show that English poetry, especially blank verse, from Mar- 
lowe's 



i88 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

"Black is the beauty of the brightest day" 
to Arnold's 

"Mixed with the murmur of the moving Nile" 

is thick-sprinkled with lines that remember the movement, 
still stirring in our pulses, of our ancestral four-stress al- 
literative measure. 

THE MANUSCRIPT SOURCES OF OLD ENGLISH 

POETRY 

Nearly the entire body of surviving Old English poetry 
is found in four unique manuscripts; all of them written 
about the eleventh century, toward the close of the Old 
English period. 

1. The Beowulf Ms., containing the Beowulf and an 
incomplete poem on Judith and Holof ernes. This Ms. was 
written about looo A.D. and is now kept in the British Mu- 
seum. Our first knowledge of it dates from 1705, when the 
librarian Wanley, cataloging the Anglo-Saxon Mss. in the 
library of Sir Robert Cotton, described it as "telling of the 
wars which a Dane Beowulf waged against the king of 
Sweden." In 1736 the Ms. was badly injured by fire. The 
first printed edition of Beowulf was made in 181 5 by the 
Scandinavian scholar Thorkelin, who had copied the Ms. 
in England. Thorkelin's translation and notes were de- 
stroyed by the British bombardment of Copenhagen in 1807, 
and his valuable Ms. copy of the poem which preserves 
many words that can now no longer be read, narrowly es- 
caped destruction. All editions of the Beowulf text are 
ultimately based on this Cotton Ms. in the British Museum 
and on Thorkelin's transcripts. 

2. The Junian Ms. This Ms. was discovered about 
1630 by Archbishop Usher and by him presented to Francis 
Dujon of Leyden, who called himself Junius, and printed 
its contents under the title Caedmons Paraphrase, in 1655. 
(For the relation of the poems in the Junian Ms. to Caed- 
mon see note on The Fall of Man). The Junian Ms. con- 
tains narrative poems on Biblical subjects in the epic style 
of alliterative verse : three Old Testament narratives. Gene- 
sis, Exodus, Daniel, and one New Testament narrative 



NOTES 189 

known as Christ and Satan. The Ms. is illustrated (see the 
facsimiles in Professor Kennedy's The Caedmon Poems), 
and is now kept in the Bodleian library at Oxford. The 
poems of the Junian Ms. were the earliest to become gen- 
erally known and their study marks the beginning of the 
modern revival of interest in Old English poetry. 

3. The Exeter Book. This Ms. book formed part of 
the library which Leofric the first bishop of Exeter col- 
lected and left to his church. Leofric died in 1071 and 
the Ms. has been in the cathedral library of Exeter ever 
since, 850 years. It contains a varied collection of O. E. 
poems, chiefly Saints' Legends in the narrative style of epic 
verse, and gnomic poetry. Among the most important 
poems in the Exeter book are the Juliana and Guthlac 
(Saints' Legends) Cynewulf's Crist, partly lyrical, and 
partly narrative and dramatic, the Phoenix, an allegorical 
Christian narrative wih a lyrical ending, the elegies of 
The Wanderer and The Seafarer, and collections of Riddles 
and Proverbs in alliterative verse. 

4. The Vercelli Book. This Ms. was discovered in 
1832 by a German scholar in the cathedral library at Ver- 
celli near Milan, where it is still kept. It contains chiefly 
prose homilies, but among these are interspersed six poems, 
among them Cynewulf's Elene, a version of the legend of 
the Finding of the Cross by St. Helena, The Fates of the 
Apostles and Andreas, Saints' Legends in the Epic style, 
and the Dream of the Rood, a lyric-dramatic poem on the 
subject of the Cross of Christ. How this Ms. book came to 
Vercelli is not known, but it has been plausibly conjectured 
that there was at Vercelli, near the southern outlet of the 
main Alpine passes into Italy, a hospice for Anglo-Saxon 
pilgrims to Rome, and that some pious English traveller 
may have left this Ms. to the library of the hospice, from 
which it later found its way into the cathedral. 



I90 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

L EPIC POETRY 
I. Heroic Epic 

Old English Heroic Epic constitutes that body of earliest 
English narrative poetry which grew out of the traditional 
stories brought by the Germanic settlers of England from 
their continental home. Its chief characteristics are: i. It 
is Germanic and Northern.^ 2. It is pagan and uninfluenced 
by the Christian tradition of the Latin Church. ^ 

In discussing Germanic Epic it is important to distinguish 
between Heroic Tradition, Legend, or Story (Heldensage) 
and Heroic Poetry (Heldendichtung). The Heroic tradi- 
tion, orally handed down, is the stuff out of which the singer 
(Scop, gleeman) made his "lays," short poems to be sung 
or recited at the feast in hall, and out of which later poets, 
perhaps on the basis of ''lays," wove long epic poems. Thus 
out of the traditional story of a hero Beowulf, brought by 
Angles and Saxons from the continent, lays were made and 
sung in the halls, and out of these and the epic tradition he 
remembered, the Beowulf poet made his epic poem. Thus 
the Nibelungen Legend or Story, the greatest Epic tale of 
the old Germanic time, gave rise to a great body of prose 
and poetry of which the poems in the Edda, (loth cent.?) 
the Volsunga Saga (13th cent.) and the Middle High Ger- 
man Nibelungenlied (close of 12th cent.) are the chief 
literary monuments. 

^The word Nordic is used to suggest the racial origin of the 
peoples of Northern and Northwestern Europe. The word Ger- 
manic denotes their linguistic and cultural unity. The main di- 
visions of Germanic are: i. East Germanic, including the Goths, 
both Ostrogoths and Visigoths. 2. North Germanic, including the 
Scandinavians, Danes, Icelanders, Swedes, "Norsemen." 3. West 
Germanic. The Old English (Anglo-Saxons) belong to this di- 
vision, of which the continental representatives are the Teutonic 
peoples, High and Low Franks and Saxons, Alemanni, etc. English 
and German are both West Germanic languages. Care should be 
taken not to confuse Germanic and German. German (Deutsch) is 
the literary language of the High German division of the Teutonic 
dialects. Germanic (Germanisch) is a generic term covering all 
that is included in East, North and West Germanic. 

2 Professor Bugge, a great authority on Germanic antiquities, be- 
lieves that the specific Norse mythology of the Eddas has been 
profoundly influenced by Christianity, that Baldr is the White 
Christ, and Loki Lucifer, etc. 



NOTES 191 

The Heroic Age. The Epic tradition of the Germanic 
peoples was developed in the time of the great folk-wander- 
ing or migration of nations that began in South Eastern 
Europe with the incursion of Huns and Goths into the 
Roman Empire, and ended with the Anglo-Saxon conquest 
of Roman Brittania. The battles of Franks and Moors in 
France and Spain, out of which grew the Charlemagne 
Legend and the Song of Roland, and the great expeditions 
of the Northmen of the Viking age, represent a transition 
to another time, and the blending of the old Germanic heroic 
tradition with other elements. The heroes and events of 
the genuine Germanic epic tradition, then, belong to this 
older Heroic Age. They have a historic foundation. Er- 
manric, Attila, Theodoric, Offa, even Beowulf, are historic 
figures. The close of the Nibelungenlied is a reminiscence 
of an actual historic occurrence, the destruction of the 
Burgundians by the Huns in the fifth century. Beowulf, 
the hero of the Old English epic, fought with his chief 
Hygelac, the Chochilaicus of the chronicles in an actual raid 
against Franks and Frisians about 520 A.D. 

But back of the historic memories of the heroic age, 
stretches the tradition of a common life, common customs, 
common institutions, a tradition so tenaciously preserved 
that passage after passage in epic poems of the 8th century 
and later can be corroborated and illustrated by the Ger- 
mania of Tacitus. And back again of this body of common 
custom and life that enters into the tradition of the Ger- 
manic heroic age, there hovers, vague, and indistinct, the 
shadow of a common belief in supernatural powers, wrought 
by later poets, more or less consciously into something like 
a definite mythology. Through the mists of our earliest 
epic loom the figures of Sceaf, Beowa, Ing (the Freyr of the 
Norse poems) and much more distinctly, Weland, the smith. 
Thus historic reminiscence, a heroic way of life, and myth 
are the strands out of which Epic tradition is woven in Ger- 
mania as well as in Greece. 

Old English epic tradition developed no body of mythol- 
ogic poems such as the Scandinavian skalds have left us in 
the poems of the Elder Edda. Woden, the Odin of the 
Norse poems, is scarcely mentioned in O. E. poetry and 



192 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

the only figure of the older mythology that seems to have 
been thoroughly acclimated in England was Weland the 
smith, the Vulcan of northern mythology. Famous weap- 
ons in the epic poems are known as "Weland's work." Deor, 
a scop who has fallen on evil days, comforts himself by re- 
caUing to mind an incident in the Weland myth that is il- 
lustrated on a curious casket of whale-bone (The "Franks" 
casket) now in the British Museum, and corroborated by 
one of the finest songs of the Edda. Alfred translates the 
Fabricius of Boethius by ''Weland." Almost down to our 
own time the tradition of the magic smith survived in Berk- 
shire, and Scott in Kenilzvorth, and more recently Kipling 
in Puck of Pook's Hill have kept alive the memory of Way- 
land, the mythical Germanic Hephaistos. 

Just as the early conversion of the English to Christianity 
prevented the elaboration of old heathen myth into literary 
forms, so the early separation of the Anglo-Saxons from 
the main body of their Germanic kinsfolk darkened the 
memory of the historic tradition of the Heroic Age, and 
made easier the substitution of Biblical for Germanic tra- 
dition, as stuff for epic composition. Yet here too there 
survives evidence of the fact that the English shared in 
the common epic tradition. The oldest of the historic 
cycles was the Gothic, with Ermanric and Theodoric as its 
chief heroes. Ermanric, his followers and his foes are re- 
membered in IVidsith and Beowulf (see notes on Ermanric, 
Hama, Brisingamen. For his story see M. B. Smith North- 
em Hero Legends). 

The greatest hero of the older epic tradition was Sigfried 
(Norse, Sigurd), the hero of the Nibelungen Legend. In 
this legend the streams of Frankish, Burgundian, and Gothic 
epic tradition unite; East, North, and West Germanic 
peoples contributed to the legend. Sigfried is a Frank, Gun- 
ther (O. E. Guthere) and Hagen (O. E. Hagena) are Bur- 
gundians. In the hall of Attila where the final fight occurs, 
Theodoric the Ostrogoth is the chief hero. Many of the 
names of this epic cycle were familiar to the English as is 
evidenced by the reference to them in IVidsith. One of the 
episodes in Beowulf alludes to incidents in the life of Sig- 
mund the father of Sigfried, that are more fully related in 



NOTES 193 

the Volsunga Saga (see note on Fitela, Beowulf 1. 872), 
though strangely enough the Beowulf poet makes Sigmund 
instead of Sigfried the slayer of the dragon. In the W alder e 
Fragments we have the remnants of a longer epic based on 
characters and incidents that belong to the Nibelungen 
Legend, (See M. B. Smith, Northern Hero Legends, Wal- 
tharius). 

The surviving body of Old English poetry that represents 
this Germanic tradition is not large if we except Beowulf. 
Widsith, the Waldere Fragments, Dear's Complaint and the 
Finnsburg Fragment represent all the salvage. (See Prof. 
Gummere's Oldest English Epic and Chadwick's The He- 
roic Age.) But we cannot conclude that the Old EngHsh 
made no other poems but the ones that have come down to 
us, out of this epic material. As Professor Ker says : "We 
can speak about what we know, but not as though we knew 
everything about Anglo-Saxon poetry." 

The longest and most important Old English heroic poem, 
Beowulf, in many ways stands curiously apart from the 
common Germanic epic tradition. The only adventures of 
the hero that are fully narrated are romantic rather than 
epic, i.e. purely imaginary events made to appear real, rather 
than real events heightened and colored by the imagination. 
Romance is imaginary reality. Epic is imagined reality. 
While there is in the Odyssey the same interweaving of ro- 
mantic and epic material (see Ker, Epic and Romance), the 
romantic elements are in the Greek poem introduced by way 
of episode (Odysseus himself narrates them at the Phaia- 
kian banquet), while in Beowulf the main strand of the 
narrative is purely imaginary (fights with monsters and a 
dragon) and the historic tradition is episodically and loosely 
introduced and confusedly handled. It is not the action in 
Beowulf that gives it its epic dignity, but the manner of 
life portrayed and the character of the hero unfolded from 
youth to age. The Nihelungenlied is infinitely richer in 
human and dramatic interest, and its close rises to heights 
of great epic poetry. In Beowulf there is none of the tragic 
conflict that makes the Nihelungenlied so moving. The 
Beozvulf is much more moraHsed, deliberately and con- 
sciously didactic in aim, than the Nihelungenlied. Beowulf 



194 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

is the type of hero that every man in arms should wish to 
be in the England of the 8th century. He is a proto-Words- 
worthian ''Happy Warrior," and Wordsworth's Northum- 
brian predecessor of the 8th century already shows some 
of the qualities which differentiate English from continental 
European poetry. 

But though Beowulf cannot be compared with the Nibe- 
lungenlied for dramatic and imaginative handling of epic 
tradition, the spirit of the old Germanic heroic age lives in 
the English poem as it does not in the German, where ideals 
of medieval chivalry and Christian sentiment have wrought 
a land-change into something rich and strange, — and ahen 
to the Germanic past. So, in spite of the fact that we must 
guard against praising Beozvulf for what it is not, it re- 
mains the greatest single poetic monument, both in spirit and 
form, of the heroic age of Germanic antiquity. 

BEOWULF 

Historic Interest of the Poem. — Among Old English 
poems whose subject-matter belongs to the old heathen time, 
by far the most important is Beowulf. There were similar 
hero-poems in vogue, not only among the Old English, but 
also among their kinsfolk, the Goths, the Franks, and the 
Northmen ; but with the exception of a few fragments, all 
of these have been lost or transformed by the spirit of a 
later age; so that the poem of Beowulf, belonging to Eng- 
land, as it does, has a still wider interest as being the ear- 
liest, and the only complete epic of the heroic age of the 
Northern peoples preserved in the ancient verse form. 
Date. — Beowulf is preserved in a single Ms. now kept in the 
British Museum. It is written in the dialect spoken in 
Wessex in the eleventh century. This West Saxon version 
is possibly directly due to the interest which King Alfred 
(t90i) took in the older poetry of his people, as a result 
of which copies were made in his time and after, of poems 
written in the North of England in the seventh and eighth 
centuries. The original Ms. was probably written in 
Northumbria toward the end of the seventh century, after 
the introduction of Christianity in the north (637), and 
before the Danish invasions put an end to Northumbrian 



NOTES 195 

culture (end of eighth century). Authorship. — No author is 
known ; we cannot even apply the word ''author" in the 
modern sense, — in the sense in which we speak of Milton as 
the author of Paradise Lost. There are numerous theories 
of authorship. These may be divided into two classes, 
(i) The ballad theory, which conceives the poem to be the 
result of piecing together various lays or early ballads sung 
by minstrels in the hall. According to this theory, the mak- 
ing of the Epic out of earlier lays was a more or less me- 
chanical business, and the scholars who have developed it 
have emphasized the inconsistencies and incongruities of 
style and structure with much ingenuity in the interest of 
their theory. Some of the greatest Beozvulf scholars, like 
Muellenhoff and Ten Brink, have held this theory, and at 
one time it had wide acceptance. For a survey of the bal- 
lad theory of Beowulf see J. E. Routh, Jr., Two Studies on 
the Ballad Theory of the Beowulf, Johns Hopkins disserta- 
tion, 1905. (2) The theory of a single poet. — Those who 
hold that Beowulf is the work of a single poet do not deny 
that the poem is based on oral lays sung in the hall to the 
accompaniment of the harp, but they insist that the Epic 
poet did more than piece these lays together. He took the 
theme of the lays, and much of their old traditional phras- 
ing, but broadened the treatment by description, character- 
ization, more subtle motivation through the introduction of 
long speeches, etc., so that now the story became matter for 
reading rather than for song or chanted recital in hall. 
Those who hold this theory explain the inconsistencies and 
incongruities of the poem as we have it, as being due to 
the peculiarities of Old English poetic style, and lay stress 
on the many evidences of unity of plan and structure, as, 
for instance, the consistently developed character of the 
hero himself. There has been in recent years a reaction 
against the extremes of the ballad theory as worked out by 
Muellenhoff, Ten Brink, and their followers, and the weight 
of scholarship is inclining to some form of the single author- 
ship theory. See the first chapter of Northern Hero Leg- 
ends, where the distinction between the ancient choric 
hymns, the later Epic lays, and the still more recent liter- 
ary Epic is clearly and succinctly drawn. Assuming, then, 



196 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

a single author for Beowulf, he must have been a Northum- 
brian poet of the late seventh or early eighth century, who 
used ancient lays of Beowulf's fight against monsters, but 
softened and civilized the character of Beowulf after the 
model of the converted kings of Northumbria, thus making 
him in every respect the contemporary ideal of English 
heroism. No one who is familiar with the writings of King 
Alfred can fail to be struck by the similarity of tone be- 
tween his sentiments and many of Beowulf's speeches. So 
the landscape, the manners and customs, and in general the 
setting, must be ascribed to this unknown Anglian poet. 
Also, of course, the superficial Christian coloring, and the 
scattered biblical allusions. 

Sources. — The sources of Beowulf were oral lays, brought 
over by the Angles in the sixth century from their old homes 
on the continent, where they were the neighbors of Jutes 
and of Danish folk. This explains how it comes that while 
the scenery and characterization point to seventh-century 
North-England, the scenes and characters are all conti- 
nental Germanic, Danish, Swedish, Jutish, etc. Hrothgar 
is a Dane. The poem opens with a genealogy of Danish 
kings. The hall Heorot was in Denmark. Beowulf belonged 
to the Geats, according to some, a tribe of southern Swe- 
den, according to others, the Jutes, inhabitants of Jutland. 
Historic Elements. — Though historic memories do not con- 
stitute the main strand of the Beowulf narrative, as they do 
of the Nihelungenlied, there are recollections of actual oc- 
currence imbedded in the folk-lore and semi-mythical adven- 
tures which are in the centre of interest. Thus the raid 
which Chocilaicus (Latinized Prankish form of the Old 
EngHsh Hygelac) made about 520 A.D. against Pranks and 
Prisians, according to Gregory of Tours, and in which the 
invader lost his life, is several times alluded to in Beozvulf. 
The hero was a nephew of Hygelac, and probably accom- 
panied his uncle on this raid. Soon after this he succeeded 
his kinsman as king of the Jutes. Beowulf is therefore a 
historic figure who ruled over the Geats or Jutes during 
the middle of the sixth century, — the very time when the 
Angles, their neighbors, began to migrate to England. 
Myth and Folklore.— In Old English genealogies occurs the 



NOTES 197 

name of Beowa as one of the mythical founders of the 
royal line. It has been supposed that Angles and Saxons, 
before their migration to England, celebrated him in song., 
and that the adventures of Beowulf in the poem belonged 
originally to this mythical Beowa. When the fame of the 
historic Beowulf was at its height, towards the close of the 
sixth century, the deeds of the older shadowy Beowa, of 
like-sounding name, were transferred to Beowulf, and thus 
out of mingling of myth and historic tradition the lays on 
which the poem was founded are supposed to have arisen. 
According to this "mythologic theory" of the origin of Beo- 
wulf,^ he was originally a kind of Sun-god, like Freyr of 
the Norse mythology, and Grendel is variously interpreted 
as an embodiment of the terrors of the misty moors, the 
stormy sea, the pestilence of the morass, etc. Owing to 
changing conceptions as to the origin of nature myths, re- 
cent scholars reject many of the conclusions of the mytho- 
logical interpreters, and refuse to see in Beowulf and his 
fights against the monsters any profound supernatural sig- 
nificance. No doubt in the stories of Beowulf's encounter 
with the nicors, with Grendel and his dam, there are remi- 
niscences of actual fights with bears, walrus, whales, etc. ; 
and in so far as these have been "monstrified" by popular 
imagination, we are dealing with mere folklore. But in the 
story of the Sheaf-child (see note on myth of the Sheaf- 
child), and of Beowulf's last fight with the fire-dragon, it 
is difficult not to recognize some of the deeper significance 
that the "mythologic interpretation" finds in them. See 
Stop ford Brooke's History of Early English Literature, 
Chap. V. For parallels to the Beowulf story in Norse Lit- 
erature see Grettis Saga (translated by Magnusson and 
Morris), and the Saga of Hrolf Kraki. (The relations of 
the latter to Beowulf are discussed by W. W. Lawrence, 
Modern Language Publications, June, 1909, p. 220. Pro- 
fessor Lawrence sharply criticizes the mythologic interpre- 
tation of Beowulf.) 

1 At the present day the generally accepted theory as to Beowa 
follows Olrik in making him a vegetation divinity ("corn spirit") 
rather than a sun-god. My friend Dr. Kemp Malone reminds me 
that Freyr "was undoubtedly an agricultural divinity." Cf. for an 
interesting modern instance of the mythopoetic imagination, the 
"Spirit of the Wheat" in Frank Norrls' Octopus. 



198 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Saga Material in Beowulf. — For recent discussions of 
the saga material in Beowulf see Axel Olrik, Heroic Leg- 
ends of Denmark, H. M. Chadwick, Origin of the English 
Nation; The Heroic Age; Miss M. G. Clarke, Sidelights 
on Teutonic History during the Migration Period. R. W. 
Chambers, Introduction to the study of Beowulf. 

Translations. — For a complete list of earlier Beowulf 
translations see C. B. Tinker. The most useful prose ver- 
sions for the student are the following: (i) C. G. Child, 
Riverside Literature Series, No. 159, Houghton Mifflin Co. 
(2) C. B. Tinker, New York, Newson and Co., 1902. (3) 
J. R. Clark Hall, London, 191 1. (Valuable introduction.) 
Professor Gummere's translation {Oldest English Epic, 
Macmillan, 1909), gives a close reproduction of the origmal 
metre. (Good notes.) Prof. W. E. Leonard in Beowulf 
and the Niebelungen Couplet, U. of Wisconsin, 1918, gives 
specimens of his spirited translation into rimed ballad coup- 
lets. (Complete translation forthcoming.) 

The Myth of the Sheaf-Child 

^ The Epic of Beowulf opens with a partly mythic gene- 
alogy of the Danish King Hrothgar, about whose hall, 
Heorot, the adventures of the first part centre. Scyld, the 
mythic founder of the line, is called **Scefing," "ing" be- 
ing the regular patronymic ending in Old English, this 
formula, Scyld Scefing, = Scyld the Sheaf-Child, came to 
be interpreted as equivalent to Scyld the son of Sceaf, and 
this imagined father of Scyld is actually mentioned in Old 
English genealogies. Of him early chroniclers tell the same 
story here related of Scyld Scefing. Thus Ethelward, a 
chronicler of the tenth century, relates how Sceaf as a lit- 
tle child drifted ashore on an island called Skaney, in a 
boat loaded with arms, and how he later became king of 
that people. William of Malmesbury, telling the same story 
after Ethelward, adds that the child was asleep, his head 
resting on a sheaf of wheat. "The region where he ruled 
is called Old Anglia, whence the English came into Britain, 
and it is situated between the Saxons and the Jutes." If 
William has here preserved an ancient feature of the story, 
it would seem that the myth of the sheaf-child was origi- 
nally Anglian, and was imported into the Danish gene- 



NOTES 199 

alogy. Some scholars think that Scyld was the common 
ancestor of Danish and EngHsh tribes. According to the 
mythologic interpretation, we have here an ancient culture 
myth. Ship and sheaf symbolize navigation and agricui^ 
tore; the weapons and treasure symbolize war and king- 
ship. The four together would symbolize the civilization of 
the low-German tribes of the North Sea coast, and Scyld 
Scefing would represent the founder of this civilization. 

I. — I. List to an old-time lay. A free rendering of 
the opening lines : 

Hwset, we Gar-Dena in gear-dagum, 

t)eod-cyninga J)rym gefrunon. 

What! we of the Spear-Danes in days of yore 

Of the people-kings the prowess have heard. 

Ge-frignan (pret. gefrsegn, gefrunon; German fragen) is 
the verb used in the regular epic formula "I have heard," 
or "we have heard," lit. ''have learned by asking" which 
suggests the manner of handing down epic tradition be- 
fore the days of Hterature. 

I. — 18. Beowulf's fame, etc. This Danish Beowulf, 
heir of Scyld Scefing, is not to be confused with the hero 
of the poem, who was a Geat or Jute. He is probably iden- 
tical with the Beowa of the Old English genealogies, who is 
there mentioned as a son of Scyld. 

2. — 10. Out in the Bay a boat was waiting. This 
mode of burial was common among the old Northmen. 
When Sigmund in the Volsunga Saga carries his dead son 
Sinfjotli (Fitela in Beozvulf) to the shores of a fjord, he 
meets a man in a boat, who ferries the body across the 
water. This is Odin conveying the dead to his kingdom. 
Sometimes fire was set to the burial ship. In the Ynglinga 
Saga, Haki, mortally wounded, has one of his ships loaded 
with armor and bodies of the slain ; tarred wood is stacked 
over all, and when the wind draws from the land, the sails 
are hoisted, the pyre kindled, and the burning ship is sent 
to sea. The prose Edda tells how the body of Balder the 
good was laid on the ship Ring-horn. On the funeral pyre 
were placed Balder's ring, and his horse with its costly trap- 
pings. Then, in the presence of all the gods, the burial ship 
was lighted and sent seaward. At a later time it was cus- 
tomary to place both ship and body in a barrow or burial 



200 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

vault. In 1880 a well-preserved Viking boat with human 
remains was unearthed near Gokstad in Norway. For 
northern burial customs see Knut Stjerna, Essays on Beo- 
wtuf, (pp. 97 ff.) and article on Oseberg Ship, Am. & Scand. 
Rev., July 192 1. With the story of Scyld Scefing compare 
Tennyson's Coming and Passing of Arthur. 

3. — I. The numbered sections of the Beowulf Ms. have 
been kept for convenience of reference and comparison with 
the original and with other translations, although they by 
no means consistently represent natural divisions of the 
poem and were probably not intended to do so. Chambers 
in his revision of Wyatt's edition (1914) has relegated the 
section numbers to the margin. The sub-heads under the 
Roman numerals are of course the translator's. Though 
Mr. Bradley is probably right in his hypothesis that these 
section numbers in the O. E. Mss. were connected with the 
method of transcription of the text (see article Beowulf in 
the Encyclopaedia Brittanica by Henry Bradley and Pro- 
ceedings of the British Academy, Vol. VII, 1915), the fact 
that all Beowulf editions and translations use them gives 
them a practical reference value. I. Beowulf was king. 
This is again the Danish Beowulf. Cf. Chadwick, Origin 
of the English Nation 273, 291. — 4. Healfdene, known 
in Scandinavian sources as Halfdan or Haldanus. The 
name Half-Dane means that his mother was foreign-born. 
— 8. Heorogar. Eldest son of Healfdene. Beowulf the 
hero, on his return from Denmark, gives to his lord the 
armor he had received from Hrothgar saying: Heorogar 
had it first but did not give it to his son Heoroward, so it 
came into his brother's hand, who gave it to Beowulf. 
Hrothgar, the king of the Danes at the time of Beowulf 
the hero's visit, and the builder of Heorot. The Saga of 
Rolf Kraki and Saxo know him. Halga, the youngest 
brother of Hrothgar, and the father of Hrothulf mentioned 
1. 1017; the Helgi of the Rolf Kraki Saga. — 9. Sigeneow. 
The Ms. is defective at this point, all that is left of a pos- 
sible name being elan. I have followed Kluge who using 
the Rolf Kraki Saga reads: 

hyrde ic \>2et [Sigeneow^ waes Ssewjelan cwen 

1 Olrik however considers Sigeneow no proper name for a 
daughter of Healfdene, since all the names of the royal family al- 
literate on H. 



NOTES 201 

The Scylfings were a Swedish dynasty descended from 
Scylf. The name is extended to the Swedish people just 
as that of the Scyldings is to the Danes. On the interest 
shown by the Old English poet in these Scandinavian royal 
lines, cf. Ker: "The history in it {Beowulf) is not EngHsh 
history .... Everywhere and in every possible way the 
old heroic poets seem to escape from the particular nation 
to which they belong, and to look for their subjects in some 
other parts of the Teutonic system. In some cases, doubt- 
less this might be due to the same kind of romantic taste as 
led later authors to place their stories in Greece or Baby- 
lon, or anywhere far from home. But it can scarcely have 
been so with Beowulf ; for the author of Beowulf does not 
try to get away from reality ; on the contrary, he buttresses 
his story all round with historical tradition and references 
to historical fact; he will not let it go forth as pure ro- 
mance." {English Literature, Medieval. Home University 
Library, p. 35.) — 25. Heorot he named it. "Stag hall" 
(Old English heorot, hart, stag), probably derived its name 
from the antlers that adorned the gable-ends. In the Finns- 
burg lay there is an allusion to the "horned gables of the 
hall." For a description of the Scandinavian hall, see Clark 
Hall's Beowulf, p. 174. The building was rectangular, with 
rows of pillars running down each side. The space between 
wall and pillars was raised in two tiers above the main floor, 
and served for seats. In front of these were ranged the 
tables, — boards laid on trestles, and removed at night, when 
the retainers slept in the hall. The hearth was in the 
centre, and the smoke found its way out through openings 
in the roof. Halfway down the tier of seats, generally on 
the south side, was the "high-seat," occupied by the lord of 
the hall. For a description of the customs of a Germanic 
hall, see note on Widsith. 

The site of Heorot can almost certainly be identified with 
Leire in Seeland, Denmark, which, according to Scandina- 
vian tradition, was the capital of the kings whose names 
correspond to Hrothgar and Hrothulf. 

4. — 4. Sunder sons from fathers. The O. E. apum- 
swerian means "son-in-law and father-in-law." Hrothgar's 



202 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

daughter Freawaru married Ingeld. Widsith relates how 
Ingeld later attacked Hrothgar ''at Heorot." Cf, Clark, 
Sidelights, 103 ff. 5. Demonsprite i.e., Grendel, whose 
name is mentioned later. Grendel's connection with the 
"powers of darkness" in the Christian sense is emphasized 
by his taking special offence at the gleeman's song of 
praise to the Creator. The old conflict between day 
and night, darkness and light, winter and summer, which 
the northern myths made so much of, is here given a 
Christian coloring. Grendel who dwells in the dark, hates 
God, who has made sun and moon triumphant over 
darkness. — 11. How the Almighty. Although the Danes 
were pagans, as the poet himself insists a little farther 
on, he here introduces a minstrel who sings of the creation 
in the vein of Caedmon. Professor Klaeber has shown that 
the Beowulf poet knew the Old English Genesis, and quoted 
from it. This is the first of numerous instances of a super- 
ficial Christian coloring given the story by the poet. — 21. 
Grendel, the monster that ravages Hrothgar's hall, is a 
strange combination of man and beast. In appearance man- 
like, but "huger in bulk than human kind," he is compared 
to an outlaw banished from the habitations of men. His 
name helps to humanize him. The other monsters have no 
names. He is his mother's only son. His father is un- 
known, though by a curious allusion to a Jewish legend, his 
descent from Cain is suggested. He has hands and arms 
and fingers, and human feelings surge in his breast. He 
laughs, he wails. He is filled with hatred and envy at the 
sound of human revelry. Yet with all these human traits, 
he is at bottom more beast than man. His "hands" and 
"fingers" are armed with huge claws. He tears his victims 
like a wild beast, gulps their blood, and devours their bodies. 
His lair is among "wolf-cliffs wild." Though he has the 
power of human feeling, he lacks the power of human ut- 
terance. His gruesome song, that the Danes hear from the 
wall, is a mere poetic figure for the howl of the wounded 
beast. There is a touch of the supernatural about him, too. 
His body is spelled against sword-stroke. Iron cannot hurt 
him. His mother's den, in which he dies, is beneath the 
surface of a haunted mere. Mysterious gleams flash from 



NOTES 203 

its depths at night. He is descended from demons. There 
is something diaboHcal about him, and when Beowulf kills 
him, he departs to the "fiends' domain." An interesting 
comparison might be drawn between Grendel and Shake- 
speare's Caliban. — 26. Offspring of Cain. This connec- 
tion of Grendel with Cain is again referred to line 1261. 
The tradition that Cain was the ancestor of evil monsters 
comes from the apocryphal book of Enoch and was also 
known to the author of the O. E. Genesis. 

5. — 2. JoTUNS. O. E. eoten, Norse jotun, the giants of 
Norse mythology. ''The giants that warred against God" 
(O. E. gigantas) come from Genesis VI. 4. Their war 
against God is again alluded to 1. 1688. 7. Asleep after 
REVEL. The warriors slept in the hall after the feast when 
the tables were removed. Hrothgar and his queen slept in 
the "bowers," ^buildings within the main enclosure but 
separate from the hall. After Grendel's ravages of Heorot, 
they all slept in the bowers. 

6. — 15. Refusing to end the feud. In the Battle of 
Maldon the heathen pirates "Danes," offer to desist from 
their raids if the English will pay ransom, but Byrhtnoth 
refuses to buy indemnity by enforced tribute. Here the 
Danes are represented as willing to pay Grendel to let them 
alone. But Grendel would neither make and keep a treaty 
nor pay indemnity (wergild) for the damage he had done. — 
24. Hell-runes. Runes were the letters used by the Ger- 
manic peoples before writing became general. They were 
probably modifications of the Latin letters for the sake of 
more easily carving them on wood, curved lines being 
straightened, and lines running with the grain being made 
diagonal so as to prevent the splitting of the wood, e.g. F = 
f^'. "Write" means to carve or cut; Beowulf in his last 
fight "writes" the dragon in two, a sword-writing mightier 
than the pen's. The runes were used for inscriptions on 
swords, drinking-horns, etc. and inspired the sense of magic 
and mystery that letters always have for the unlettered, 
so that "rune" came to mean "mystery." This sense was 
emphasized by the use of rune-staves (Germ, buch-stabe) 
in reading omens. Hence the transition to magic witch- 
craft was easy. Hel-rune for "witch" occurs in O. E. glosses, 



204 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

and Jordanes tells that Filimer king of the Goths, found 
witches among his people, quas Haliu-runnas cognominat. 
See the examples of runes given in the note on Cynewulf, 
p. 233. — 31. That he might not visit his goodly throne. 
A difficult passage. The "he" is generally understood to 
refer to Grendel who was prevented from touching the seat 
of Hrothgar — no he J)one gift-stol gretan moste. I follow 
Holtzmann in making "he" refer to Hrothgar. 

7. — 5. At heathen altars. The poet probably knew 
more about the old pagan cult than he cared to reveal, but he 
crosses himself and deHvers an earnest exhortation to wor- 
ship the true God. — 9. The hope of the heathen on Hell 
was fixed. So Milton in Paradise Lost makes the old 
Semitic divinities and even the gods of Greece, inhabitants 
of hell and vassals of Satan. To the Northumbrian poet 
of the 8th century the Danes as he knew them were heathen. 
But the character of Hrothgar is his own creation and 
therefore much nearer the ideal of a Christian Anglian king 
of the 8th cent. — 24. Hygelac's thane. Beowulf, the hero. 
His name is not mentioned until he himself proclaims it 
at Hrothgar's court 149 lines farther on! To introduce the 
hero's name attached to another, and to introduce the hero 
himself without a name is certainly a defect of workman- 
ship. The character of Beowulf is admirably conceived and 
so consistent throughout, that this in itself is the most con- 
vincing refutation of the "accretionary" theory of the origin 
of the poem. About the facts of Beowulf's life the poem 
gives us the following information : He is the son of Ecg- 
theow of the Swedish line of the Scylfings. His mother, 
whose name is not mentioned, was a daughter of Hrethel 
king of the Geatas (see note on Jutes below), and a sister 
of Hygelac who succeeded Hrethel as king. In his boyhood 
he came to the court of Hrethel and was reared by his uncle 
Hygelac as a "sister's son", a relationship held in special 
regard by Germanic peoples (sororum filiis idem apud avun- 
culum qui apud patrem honor, to sisters' sons the same re- 
gard is paid by uncle as by father, Tacitus, Germania XX). 
Like many other legendary heroes (cf. Saxo's Hamlet) he 
was in youth despised as slothful (he was called "a slacker" 
wendon t)set he sleac waere), but when he grew up he had 
the strength of thirty men in his grip and became a fa- 



NOTES 205 

mous fighter against sea-monsters. His greatest youthful 
exploit was his swimming match with Brecca. This and 
the three main adventures of the poem, the fight with Gren- 
del and Grendel's mother in Hrothgar's land, and the fight 
with the dragon in his own land in old age, belong to folk- 
lore or myth. But there is genuine historic reminiscence in 
the statement that he accompanied Hygelac on his fatal 
raid against Franks and Frisians. (See note on Hygelac 
below.) According to the poem Beowulf saved his life on 
that occasion by another great swimming feat, returning 
home alone "laden with thirty coats of mail" (1. 2361). 
He refused the throne offered him by Hygelac's widow, 
acted as guardian to Hygelac's son Heardred, and on the 
death of the latter became king of the Geatas and had ruled 
over them fifty years when his last fight took place. In 
the description of his funeral ceremonies a mourning 
"woman" is mentioned. Bugge, who has restored the pas- 
sage, suggests that Beowulf in finally accepting the offer 
of Hygelac's throne "took his widow into the bargain as 
was usual." But Beowulf expressly mentions the fact that 
he has no heir to whom to leave his armor. 

Though epic tradition had probably combined the feats 
of a mythical hero Beowa and the deeds of a historic Beo- 
wulf who lived in the middle of the 6th century, the char- 
acter of Beowulf is as much the creation of the Old Eng- 
lish poet, as Hamlet's character is Shakespeare's creation. 
That character reflects the ideals of a ruler prevailing at the 
Christian courts of Northumbria in the 8th century. 
Beowulf's feats are primitive and naive, but though we are 
told again and again that his strength lay in the grip of his 
hand, it is something else that grips us as we read of his 
exploits : his gentleness in union with strength, his dignity, 
his nobility, his contempt for meanness and pettiness (see 
especially his retort to Unferth), his entire freedom from 
guile, his loyalty, his love of adventure and daring combined 
with prudence, (like Whitman's soldier ''bold, cautious, 
true''), his ambition for fame coupled with forgetfulness of 
self, his honest pride in his achievements free from con- 
temptuous arrogance. No wonder Hrothgar says: 
"Me J)in mod-sefa 
licaj) leng swa wel, leofa Beowulf." 



2o6 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

(Thy "mod-sefa" dear Beowulf I love better the longer I 
know thee.) The Anglo-Saxons were too unsophisticated to 
have a word for character, though they knew the thing 
without the word, and it is the character of Beowulf that 
grips Hrothgar and us. Two names, one of fiction one of 
history, Beowulf and Alfred ought to be sufficient to refute 
the widely-spread notion that the Old English were not 
civilized until they were Prussianized by the Normans. The 
"polish" of civilization came later, but the grain that took 
the polish can best be studied in the character of Beowulf 
and the writings of Alfred. — 24. Hygelac. The king of 
the Geatas. Identical with the Chochilaicus who according 
to Gregory of Tours made a raid into the territory of Fris- 
ians and Merovingian Franks between 512 and 520. Hyge- 
lac had already loaded his booty aboard his ships, when he 
was surprised by Theudebert, son of the Merovingian The- 
oderic, and slain in battle. (Historia Francoruni III, 3 
written in the 6th century). This event is four times re- 
ferred to in the poem 1202, 2201, 2354, 2912 ff. — 25. The 
DAUNTLESS JuTE. O. E. god mid Geatum, good (brave) 
among the Geatas. Beowulf is called a Geat in the poem, 
and most Beowulf critics identify the Geatas with the in- 
habitants of what is now Southern Sweden, south of the 
great lakes (The Swedish Gotar, Old Norse Gautar). I 
have followed Bugge and Gering in identifying the Geatas 
with the Jutes a tribe of northern Jutland and neighbors of 
the Angles and Saxons in their old homes, and have con- 
sistently translated so. This is not the place to give the 
arguments pro and con (see Chambers Introduction, p. 8 ff., 
where a strong case is made out for the Gotar as against 
the Jutes). Even if we accept the theory that Beowulf came 
from southern Sweden, "Jutes" is a better English word 
than ''Geats." 

8. — 12. He was wise in seamanship. I take the "lagu- 
craeftig (Sea-crafty) man" to refer to Beowulf himself. 
Sigfrid, the hero of the Nibelungenlied is also described as 
knowing the right ways across the waters, "Die rehten waz- 
zerstraze sint mir wol bekant." Seamanship was a neces- 
sary accomplishment of the ideal northern hero. 

9. — 24. No HOUSE-CARL HE. Bcowulf's armor and ap- 
pearance prove that he is no mere retainer in the hall of a 
king, but himself a leader of noble lineage. 



NOTES 207 

10. — 6. EcGTHEow, the father of Beowulf, married the 
only daughter of Hrethel, king of the Geatas, and father of 
Hygelac. Having slain Heatholaf the Wylfing, Ecgtheow 
seeks protection at the court of Hrothgar in the early days 
of Hrothgar's rule. Hrothgar accepts his fealty and set- 
tles the feud by money-payment. (Wyatt's note). 

II. — 15. Shone the boar-heads. The images of the 
boar on the crests of the helmets, frequently mentioned in 
the poem. The boar was sacred to Freyr, the favorite god 
of the Germanic tribes about the North Sea and the Baltic. 
See Clark Hall's Beozmtlf for pictures of helmets showing 
the boar-crest. Tacitus noted these boar-helmets as char- 
acteristic of the Aestii : Insigne superstitionis, formas 
aprorum gestant, (marks of their superstition, they wear 
boar-images.) York is a contraction of eofor-wic (German 
eber) boar-town, and in the name of New York the philo- 
logical bones of this beast that played so important a role 
in old Germanic life and tradition, lie buried. 

12. — I. The street was stone-paved. O. E. straet, from 
the Latin strata via, paved road, one of the early West 
Germanic borrowings from Latin. The Germanic peoples 
built neither houses nor roads of stone, and the stone-paved 
street is a memory of the Roman roads known to the North- 
umrbian poet. — 24. I am Beowulf called. The first 
mention of the hero by name. 

15. — 2. Byrnie. O. E. byrne, the corslet. The most 
common kenning for it is "ring-net." The corslet of ring- 
mail was composed of small fine iron rings which were so 
arranged that every ring was interlocked with four others. 
A complete corslet of this kind, found at Vimoor (Funen), 
was made up of about 20,000 rings, and it is estimated that 
it must have taken a man something like a year to make it. 
Like the sword, the corslet was a valued heirloom, and 
Beowulf leaves his own to Wiglaf at his death. (See fig. 
6 in Clark Hall's Beozvulf.) — 19. With nicors I wrestled. 
Sea-monsters, variously interpreted; here probably the wal- 
rus (whale-horse). Vigfusson's Icelandic dictionary de- 
fines them as "fabulous water goblins, mostly appearing in 
the shape of a gray water-horse." The word is common 
Germanic. In modern English Old Nick has become a land- 



2o8 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

lubber and got mixed up with Nicholas. From the German 
feminine form, we get "nixy." Matthew Arnold's Neckan 
is from the Swedish "nsecken." See Cent. Diet. ''Nick" and 
''nicker." — 21. Crushed in my grip. Beowulf's strength is 
in his grip. He prefers his hands to weapons in a fight, 
and like many heroes of Northern Saga finds swords of lit- 
tle use. 

16. — 6. His faith must put in the judgment of God, 
i.e. the battle will decide who is right, but the judgment 
of God decides the battle. It is the ancient (and modern) 
faith in trial by combat. 20. The work of Weland, the 
famous smith of Germanic epic tradition. See introduc- 
tory note on Heroic Epic. So Wyrd will be done. 
"Wyrd" (Norse Urd, one of the three Norns) is the Old 
English goddess of fate, whom even Christianity could not 
entirely displace. "Fair are the glories of Christ; Wyrd 
is strongest," says an Old English proverb. (See Gnomic 
Verses, p. 75, 1. 4.) The weird sisters, i.e. the "fate sis- 
ters," in Macbeth are survivals in Scottish tradition of the 
Germanic Wyrd. For a striking picture of the Norse 
"weavers of Fate," see the Icelandic Njals Saga, Chap. 157. 
(Dasent's translation, The Story of Burnt Njal, repub- 
hshed, London, Grant Richards, 1900; and Gray's Fatal 
Sisters.) It is difficult to determine how far Wyrd was 
still thought of in a personal way by the Old English poets. 
Wyrd and God hold a balance of power in all the older 
poetry. Our word "doom" has gone over to the realm of 
fate, whereas for the Anglo-Saxons after the conversion it 
was used of the Judgment of God, as still in our "dooms- 
day." — 23. For the gist of Hrothgar's reference to Ecg- 
theow see note 10 — 7. 

17. — 7. They boasted. O. E. beot, boast has not the un- 
favorable modern connotation, "nor was it Dutch courage 
that inspired the utterance. As in the Indian war-dance so 
at the Germanic feast in hall or camp before battle, the 
warrior was expected to make his 'beot,' or promise of 
prowess, — and to keep it." Gummere. 23. While the 
minstrel sang. Cf. Widsith, p. 76, 1. 25. 

18. — 6. Brecca. Beowulf's adventure with Brecca is par- 
alleled by his feat of swimming of¥ with the thirty suits of 



NOTES 209 

armor (see note on Beowulf 7 — 24). Swimming and div- 
ing were accomplishments expected of northern heroes. 
The sagas often mention the fact that their heroes were ex- 
pert swimmers, e.g. the Kristni Saga of Olaf Tryggvason 
who fought the English at the battle of Maldon. The Njals' 
Saga says of one of its heroes *'he could swim like a seal." 
16. Seven days and nights. O. E. seofon niht "a. sen- 
night." The Germanic peoples reckoned by nights instead 
of days (cf. fort-night) Tacitus noted this custom (Ger- 
mnnia XI) Nee dierum numerum ut nos, sed noctium corn- 
put ant. 

21 — 2. You MURDERED YOUR BROTHERS, YOUR CLOSEST OF 

KIN. — To turn against one's kin was considered the basest 
of all crimes among the Northern peoples, just as defense 
of kinsfolk was the first duty. In the Scandinavian sources 
Gothmund hurls the same charge at Sinfjotli (Fitela). 
''Nought can stifle call of kin" says the poet when Wiglaf 
comes to the aid of Beowulf his kinsman in his last fight. 

26. — 30. Ale-spilling fray. Literally "ale-bereave- 
ment," — reminiscent of the wild oversetting of tankards and 
spilling of ale when the hall was suddenly attacked. For 
famous Germanic hall-fights see the close of the Nibelungen- 
lied (Needler's translation), the Old English Finnsburg 
Fragment (Gummere's Oldest English Epie), and the fine 
Eddie lay of Hamthir, where there is a vivid picture of an 
"ealu-scerwen," an ale-spilling: 

"There was tumult in the hall, the tankards were upset 
The men lay in blood that mingled with beer." 

28. — 6. Point would not pierce, etc. "Spells" which 
protected those who knew them, against injury, were fa- 
miliar to our Germanic ancestors. See Charm against a 
Sudden Stitch, and note. Later, Beowulf's sword refuses 
to bite on the body of Grendel's mother. She was spelled 
against all swords but her own, and it is with this that Beo- 
wulf finally kills her. In the Njals Saga (Chap. 30), Hall- 
grim has a sword "which he had made by seething spells ; 
and this is what the spells say, that no weapon shall give 
him his deathblow save that sword. When a man is to be 
slain by that sword, something sings in it so loudly that it 
may be heard a long way off." This belief in "spells" and 



2IO OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

charmed weapons lasted a long time. Macbeth smiles at 
swords and laughs weapons to scorn, because he thinks he 
has been spelled against them by the witches, and when he 
meets Macduff, he says: 

"Let fall thy blade on vulnerable crests ; 
/ bear a charmed life." 

For charmed weapons, cf. Faerie Queene, Bk. I, Canto IV, 
stanza 50. 

29. — 5. This token they saw. Beowulf probably hung 
his battle-trophy on some projection above the door on the 
outside of the hall ; ^or later we are told that Hrothgar sees 
it as he is standing on the steps outside. For an interesting 
Norse parallel see the Icelandic Saga of Grettir the Strong, 
Chaps. 35 and 36. (Translated by Magnusson and Morris.) 
In this story the hero fights a cat-monster. "The men of 
Bard-dale say that day dawned on her while they wrestled, 
and that she burst when he cut the arm from her." The 
parallels are probably due to a modification and domestica- 
tion of the Grendel story in Iceland. Cf. also the Icelandic 
saga of Bodvar Bjarki (Lawrence, Mod. Lang. Piibl, June, 
1909, pp. 220 sq.). 

29. — 6. The Hand of Grendel. The O. E. speaks of 
hand, arm, and shoulders and combines the whole into 
"grap" Grendel's gripe or clutch. Though described in 
human terms he uses his "grap" like a wild beast. It is 
later described as having steel-like spurs. Perhaps there are 
reminiscences of fights with "the bear that walks like a 
man." Human beings that had changed into the forms of 
wild animals were considered especially dangerous. See 
note on wer-wolf. 13. Not one of them felt regret, i.e. 
they exulted in Grendel's defeat. One of the numerous ex- 
amples of litotes, emphasis by understatement, characteristic 
of O. E. poetry and especially the Beowulf poet. So Beo- 
wulf deems the fife of Grendel, on whom all epithets of 
wanton destructiveness have been heaped, as "of little use 
to mankind." So after Grendel's attack on Heorot, when 
the hall stood empty at night, "it was easy to find men that 
slept elsewhere." So when Unferth the boaster sees Gren- 
del's clutch placed by Beowulf over the entrance of the 



NOTES 211 

hall, he is "more sparing of brags" i.e. he is utterly silenced, 
Beowulf has ''shut him up." 

30. — 872. The episodes have been omitted in the trans- 
lation as most of them deal obscurely with battles and feuds 
the elucidation of which, even when possible, lies beyond 
the scope of this book. But it should not be forgotten, as 
Professor Ker points out, that this episodic material gives 
a reality and solidity to the poem which is lost by their 
entire omission. The most vivid portions of the poem are 
the least real, and the most real are the least vivid, and this 
is one of the chief defects of Beowulf as an epic poem. 
The episode of Sigmund has a special interest, because it 
shows that the Nibelungen Legend was known in England, 
and because this allusion to it antedates by centuries the 
Volsiinga Saga, the Nihelungenlied, and even the Eddie 
poems. Sigmund is called wreccena wide maerost, "most 
widely known of heroes." As noted before, the dragon 
slaying is here attributed to Sigmund instead of Sigfrid. 
The Volsunga Saga preserves the story of Sigmund and 
SinfjotH (Fitela). The O. E. poet rightly calls Sigmund 
Waelse's eafera, son of Waels (Vols) and Waelsing, -ing 
or -ung being the patronymic, whereas the Volsunga Saga 
erroneously calls Sigmund's father Volsung. 

31. — 6. Stood on the step. O. E. stod on stapole. A 
much-discussed passage. "Stapol" generally means column, 
but Beowulf had placed Grenders claw outside the hall. I 
have followed Miller's interpretation (Anglia XII, 398 
adopted by Chambers) of stapol as the stone step leading 
up to the entrance of the hall over the door of which, under 
the gable-end, hung the trophy. 24. Ancient of Days. 
O. E. eald metod "old creator." "Old" here suggests dignity 
and the affectionate loyalty due to age, and what is vener- 
able with age. It is steeped in Germanic feeling and there 
is a touch of naive simplicity that is absent from the He- 
brew "Ancient of Days." Professor Gummere translates 
"That the God of ages was good to her." 33. — 24. Not 
EASY IT IS. Litotes for impossible, i.e. escape from death. 
34. — 12. Hrothgar and Hrothulf. Hrothulf, Hrothgar's 
nephew is the Hrolf Kraki of Danish Saga. The queen 
later on expresses the hope that Hrothulf, should he by the 



212 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

death of Hrothgar become guardian of her young sons, 
will prove a faithful protector to them. This hope was not 
to be realized. Hrethric, Hrothgar's son was deposed and 
slain by Hrothulf, and Hrothulf himself was killed by 
Heoroward, son of Heorogar, Hrothgar's elder brother, and 
his hall burned over his head. These details, obscurely al- 
luded to in the poem, we learn from later Scandinavian 
sources. 28. Offspring of files. O. E. fela laf, "leav- 
ings of files," kenning for sword. In B. 2829, and the Shield 
Riddle the sword is called hamera laf, leavings of hammers. 

35. — 8. The heir of Ing. O. E. eodor Ingwina, ruler of 
the Ingwins, "friends of Ing," a name given to the Danes 
as worshippers of Freyr who bore the surname Ing. 

36. — 6. The sudden assault on the sons of Finn. For 
the relation of this episode to the Finnsburg Fragment see 
Oldest English Epic, p. 70, and Chambers' Introduction, 
Part III, pp. 245-289, where the relation of the Beowulf 
Episode to the Finnsburg Fragment is fully discussed. 

37. — 14. Hrethric. See note on Hrothulf, 34 — 12. 
16. Beowulf is of course the special hero of the haele{)a 
beam "the children of the warriors," and the picture of 
him sitting among the youngsters (giogoth) with Wealh- 
theow's two boys nestling close to him adds a human touch 
to a character very little "sentimentalized" in the modern 
sense. The "riotous band" is not in the text but everything 
else is. 

37. — 22. Hama . . . GEM OF the Brisings. The collar the 
queen gives to Beowulf is compared to the Brisinga men, a 
famous necklace which in the Eddie poems adorns the god- 
dess Freyja. For Hama see note on Life of the Gleeman, 
WuDGA and Hama yy — 10. 

40. — 24. Nor was Beowulf there. After the killing of 
Grendel, the retainers again sleep in the hall, but Beowulf, 
like the king, sleeps in the bowers near by. 

41. — 2. Bad was the bargain, i.e. The Jutes had lost 
a man the first night in the hall of the Danes, and now the 
Danes had paid the loss with loss of their own man, but it 
was a futile exchange. 

45. — 8. They saw in the water sea-snakes, etc. Cf. 
the fine assortment of sea-monsters in the Faerie Queene, 
Bk. II, Canto XII, 22-25 : 



NOTES 213 

''Spring-headed Hydras and sea-shouldering whales 
Great whirlpooles which all fishes make to flee; 
Bright Scolopendrges arm'd with silver scales; 
Mighty Monoceroses with immeasured tayles. 
The dreadful Fish that hath deserved the name 
Of Death, and like him lookes in dreadfull hew; 
The griesly Wasserman, that makes his game 
The flying ships zvith swiftness to pur sew; 
The horrible Sea-Satyre, that doth shew 
His fearfull face in time of greatest storme; 
Huge Ziffius, whom Mariners eschew 
No less then rockes, (as travellers informe) 
And greedy Rosmarines with visages deforme." 

45- — 13. Sudden they fled. So, in the Faerie Qiieene, 
when the palmer smote the sea with his staff, 

"all that dreadful armie fast gan fly 
Into great Tethys bosome, where they hidden lye." 

46. — 22. Swiftly he sank, etc. In the story of Grettir, 
the hero fights a giant in a cave under a waterfall. It is 
clearly a reminiscence of Beowulf's adventure. "Then 
Grettir dived under the force (waterfall), and hard work it 
was, because the whirlpool was strong, and he had to dive 
down to the bottom before he might come up under the 
force, and the river fell over it from the sheer rocks. He 
went up into the cave, and there was a great fire flaming 
from amidst of brands; and there he saw a giant sitting 
withal, marvellously great, and dreadful to look on. . . . 
And the giant was fain to reach for a sword that hung up 
there in the cave; but therewithal Grettir smote him afore 
into the breast, and smote off well-nigh all the breast, bone 
and belly, so that the bowels tumbled out of him and fell 
into the river, and were driven down along the stream; and 
as the priest (who has been holding a rope for Grettir to 
pull himself up by) sat by the rope, he saw certain fibres 
all covered with blood swept down the swirls of the stream ; 
then ... he thought for sure that Grettir was dead, and 
got him home. But Grettir went up the cave, after he had 
killed the giant, and kindled a light, and espied the cave. 



214 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The story tells not how much he got therein, but it must 
have been something great." 

47. — 9. Though eager to smite her, his arm was 
HELPLESS. So in the story of Grettir : "She held him to her 
so hard that he might turn his hands to no account save to 
keep fast hold on the middle of the witch." — 18. Now 
FIRST HE DISCERNED. It may Well be that the Grettis Saga 
preserves the original form of the story in which the hero 
first meets his adversary within the cave as Chambers sug- 
gests (Beowulf ed. p. 76). But there is no real difficuhy 
in supposing that Beowulf could not recognize (ongietan) 
his foe under water, and that in her grip under water, he 
could not well wield his weapon. By the light in the cave 
he saw who she was (ongeat) and in the free air of the 
cave the swinging blow was possible even though, as Cham- 
bers holds against Gummere there is nothing said of his 
''having extricated himself from the coil." — 21. Sang on 
HER HEAD THE HARD-FORGED BLADE. The sword in Ger- 
manic Epic has a well-marked personality. It has its proper 
name, its pedigree and history, its runic inscription on the 
hilt, with the name of the maker. It was faithful to its 
owner, or on occasion it failed him like a traitor, as here. 
Often it encouraged him, and spurred him on to do his best. 
It drank the blood from the wound in battle-gulps, and sang 
its war-song wild on the head of the foe. Oaths were sworn 
on the sword, and if a sword-oath is broken, the blade will 
not bite but on the owner's head. Swords were among the 
most precious heirlooms handed down from father to son. 
'They were not inanimate tools of war, but seemed alive, 
endowed with supernatural powers, witnesses and symbols 
of the most important transactions of life, intimate com- 
rades in the hour of need." (Uhland.) — Moreover, every 
sword had its own peculiar ring, by which it could be recog- 
nized, like the sound of the human voice. In the story of 
Offa (see Uhland's ballad, Der Blinde Ka^nig, and Saxo, 
V, 4, p. 96), the blind old king, Wermund, listening to a 
dual combat between his son and a Viking chief, recognizes 
the triumphant voice of his old sword, and knows that his 
son is victorious. — 23. Battle-flasher. A fine kenning for 
the sword. As Uhland points out (Deutsche Heldensage), 



NOTES 215 

swords were often named for their light-giving power. 
Valhalla was lighted by swords. In the Finnsburg Frag- 
ment, during a night-attack upon the hall, the "sword-light 
flashed as though all Finnsburg were on fire." 

48. — 6. The murderous hag by the hair he caught. 
The Ms. reads eaxle = shoulder, emended by Sweet to 
feaxe = hair, which improves both the sense and the al- 
literation. — 18. All had been over with Ecgtheow's son. 
A desperate attempt on the part of the Christian poet to hold 
the balance between the providence of God and the prowess 
of the hero. Yet the passage is quite in keeping with the 
sentiment of line 572 : "Wyrd will often deliver an un- 
doomed earl, if his courage is good." 

49. — 24. The lifeless body sprang from the blows, 
etc. Not an act of wanton revenge, but probably in order to 
prevent Grendel's double or ghost from haunting the hall. 

53. — 16. Runes were writ. Literally: Through rune- 
staves it was rightly marked, set and said, for whom the 
sword, etc. "Read" is the regular word that denotes de- 
ciphering of runes. (Cf. German ''rathen," and see note on 
Hell-rune, 6-24) — 31. Not Heremod thus, etc. Like Er- 
manric among the Goths, Heremod became for the Danes the 
stock example of a bad and cruel king. He is here intro- 
duced as the anti-type of the good king, just as for readers 
of the poem Beowulf himself was the type of the noble king 
and hero. See Chad wick. Origins, 148 fif. 

55. — 9. The Hardy one, i.e. Beowulf. The syntax offers 
difficulties, but the main point is clear: Hrunting had failed 
Beowulf in the fight. But he does not taunt Unferth who 
lent him the sword. So Beowulf's courtesy is put in strong 
relief and the parting from Unferth is contrasted with the 
meeting (Gummere). 

57. — 13. Kissed the king, U. 13 and 15 are Professor 
Gummere's. Literally : Kissed the king of noble lineage, 
the lord of Scyldings, the best of thanes, took him by the 
neck, the tears fell, etc. The language of the recognition 
scene between Joseph and* Benjamin (Gen. 45:14) natur- 
ally suggests itself to any translator at this point: "And he 
fell upon his brother Benjamin's neck and wept. . . . 
Moreover he kissed his brethren, etc." 



2i6 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

58. — 7. Said the Weder folk would welcome the 
SIGHT OF THEM. Professor Gummere renders: 

but ''Welcome!" he called to that Weder clan 
O. E. 

cwaej) l)3et wilcuman Wedera leodum 
scal)an scirhame, to scipe foron. 

"Quoth that welcome to the Wederfolk the shining-mailed 
warriors to their ship fared." The Weder folk are of course 
Beowulf's people, but Gummere's rendering does violence to 
the syntax both of wilcuman and faran. The coast-guard 
says : You are faring to your ship, welcome to the Weder- 
folk, i.e. to the Weder-folk at home your return is welcome. 

58. — 18. Its sea-suit. O. E. J)a wses be maeste mere-hrsegla 
sum. "There was by the mast a sea-garment." Our mod- 
ern "suit of sails" keeps the same figure. — 26. Stood on 
THE SHORE. They seem to have driven right upon the beach 
before the wind. This sudden and somewhat unseamanlike 
landing may be due to the ecclesiastical poet's unfamiHarity 
with boats, or it may represent actual practice. Boats are 
described as grating on the shingle, driving upon the sand, 
and also as riding at anchor. Probably they were beached 
for loading and unloading where tide and bottom permitted, 
and then floated and anchored or moored. The coast guard 
sees Beowulf's men on their arrival bearing their shields 
"over bolcan," (gunwale?), but Beowulf finds his boat 
riding at anchor on his return. Cf . the sea-voyages in Elene, 
Andreas, Guthlac. 

60. — Beowulf's fight with the Fire Dragon. The 
story of the dragon and treasure are common motives of 
Germanic Epic. See the tale of Sigurd and Fafnir, in the 
Volsunga Saga, on which Wagner has based his Sigfrid- 
drama.--27. Uprose with his shield. Probably an old 
Epic formula. So in the Latin Waltharius (see Scheffel's 
Ekkehard), the hero "in clipeum surgit." 

61. — 24. As the worm coiled back. "Worm" is the 
native Germanic word for dragon. — 27. The shield of 
IRON, etc. A difficult passage, which none of the translators 
has made clear. I take the verb "wealdan" to refer to the 
shield, and by supplying the pronoun "his" or "him'* (i.e. 



NOTES 217 

the shield) as object of "wealdan," to wield, we get the fol- 
lowing sense : Beowulf, having a brand-new iron shield, had 
a right to expect that it would last longer than it did, seeing 
that he wielded (it) for the first time (forman dogore), 
on that occasion (py fyrste). 

62. — 25. Fled to the wood. For a parallel situation, and 
reproach of the cowards, see the Battle of Maldon, p. 171, 1. 
186. The speech of ^Ifwine (Maldon, 11. 195 sq.) closely 
echoes that of Wiglaf, and illustrates the Germanic trait of 
loyalty to the leader which Tacitus had noted long ago 
{Germania, Chap. 14) : "Base it is for the followers {co- 
mitatiis) not to equal the courage of the leader; but infa- 
mous and disgraced for the rest of his life is he who re- 
turns from the battle surviving his lord." 

63. — 2. Wiglaf was called. Wiglaf was a kinsman of 
Beowulf (see Beowulf's last speech), and therefore doubly 
bound to stand by his lord. 

65. — 10. Broken was N.egling. The name of Beowulf's 
sword. Other famous sword-names were Hrunting (thrus- 
ter), the sword Unferth gave to Beowulf; Miming, the 
sword Wayland the smith made for Sigurd according to the 
Thidrekssaga; Balmung, Sigfried's sword in the Nibelung- 
enlied. See note on p. 47-21. — 13. His hand was too 
HEAVY. Saxo tells the same thing of Offa. No sword was 
of such stiffness that he did not shiver it at the first stroke 
into many pieces, "crebra partium f ractione dissolveret !" 
See also Volsunga Saga, Chap. XV, Sigurd's sword-test. 

66. — 2. Thrust from below, etc. The dragons of Ger- 
manic folklore have scaly backs that no sword may pierce, 
and can only be killed from below. In the Volsunga Saga, 
Sigurd kills the dragon Fafnir by digging a pit in his path 
and stabbing him from below. — 20. Work of the giants. 
Tacitus says that the Teutons abhorred stone walls. To the 
Angles and Saxons who invaded England in the fifth and 
sixth centuries, accustomed as they were to wooden halls 
0: the Heorot type, the remnants of Roman architecture 
were ''Giants' work." "Castles are seen from afar, reared by 
giants they rise in the land, wondrous walls of masonry," 
say the Gnomic Verses. The word translated "castles" 
is the Roman castra. — 22. Upheld that hill-vault, etc. 



2i8 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Literally "earth-house." This name is said to be still ap- 
plied in Scotland to the underground structures known as 
Picts' houses. See "earth-houses," Cent. Diet. 

68. — 2. Many a sun-bright jewel he saw. Dragon- 
guarded treasure played a great role in Germanic folklore. 
The best known is the famous Nibelungen hoard won by 
Sigfried when he kills the dragon. The towering banner, 
with gold inwoven, may be a reminiscence of a legionary 
standard left behind in the hurried withdrawal of the Ro- 
man garrisons under Honorius, 410 A.D. The military 
standard of the Roman emperors consisted of a staff or 
lance carrying a purple banner on a cross-bar. The banner 
usually bore the effigy of the emperor. But Constantine, 
who, it will be remembered, was proclaimed at York, after 
his conversion to Christianity placed upon it, woven in gold, 
the mystic monogram consisting of the Greek letter X( = 
Ch) and P(==R), standing for "Christ." (For a detailed 
description of the Labarum, see Eusebius' Life of Constan- 
tine, quoted in note on Elene.) It is far from improbable 
that some such standard, hidden away with other Roman 
treasure, was discovered by Anglian invaders of the North 
of England. 

69. — 21. Beowulf's Barrow. So Achilles had his tomb 
"high on a jutting headland over wide Hellespont, that it 
might be seen from afar off the sea by men that now are 
and by those that shall be hereafter." {Odyssey, Book 24, 
Butcher and Lang's translation.) 

70. 2. To FIND THE REWARD OF THE FAITHFUL. A 

Christian touch out of keeping with what Beowulf has 
just said about Wyrd sweeping away the last of his line to 
the land of doom. For a similar mingling of the Christian 
and the old Germanic mood in contemplating the hereafter, 
see the close of the Gnomic verse from the Cotton Ms., 
p. 157, 14-19. 

74. — 22. Joined in the wail. See note on Beowulf for 
the theory that he had a wife. Cf. the lament of Andro- 
mache over Hector (Iliad 24, 725 ff.), which has the same 
governing motive, the fear that now the tribal hero is dead 
nothing but captivity awaits the defenceless folk (Cham- 
bers). 



NOTES 219 

75. — 14. The battle-brave rode. So Jordanes describ- 
ing Attila's funeral tells how mounted horsemen rode round 
his body chanting his famous deeds. Cf. also the burial of 
Achilles (Odyssey 24, 68-70). **And many heroes of the 
Acheans moved mail-clad around the pyre, — both footmen 
and horse, and great was the noise that arose." 

THE LIFE OF THE GLEEMAlT 
From the Widsith 

In the Widsith we have an interesting example of the 
distinction made above, between Epic tradition, and Epic 
poetry. Widsith is not an epic poem; there is only a slight 
strand of narrative in it, and that is personal rather than 
narrative, but it is made up of allusions and references to 
a very ancient form of that epic tradition, out of which 
the earliest heroic lays of the Germanic peoples were made. 
Around the names of the leaders of Goths and Vandals, 
Lombards, Franks, Burgundians, and Huns, who collided 
with each other and with the waning power of Rome from 
the fourth to the sixth centuries, the great cycles of Ger- 
manic Epic tradition arose. 

The earliest home of this tradition was the hall of the 
king, where among heroes and nobles the gleeman chanted 
his lay. It is not a poetry of the people in the true sense, 
but a poetry of the fighting class. Though "popular" as 
opposed to ''literary" in its origins, we get in it no reflection 
of the life and interests of the people as a whole. (See 
note on Riddles and Gnomic Poetry). 

The form of the epic lay, in continuous verse chanted or 
recited to the accompaniment of the harp, as distinguished 
from earlier choric songs in strophic form mentioned by 
Tacitus, seems to have been first developed among the Goths, 
and to have spread from them to the Franks and other 
West-Germanic tribes. Cassiodorus, a historian of the sixth 
century, tells how Chlodwig, the founder of the Frankish 
kingdom, asked Theodoric the Ostrogoth to send him a 
gleeman practised in the art of chanting lays to the ac- 
companiment of the harp, and the Old English Widsith is 
a striking testimony to the large contribution made by the 
vanished Goths to Old Germanic Epic. 



220 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The Epic Lay, at first a recital of actual occurrence, be- 
came in time overlaid with legendary and mythical material. 
Names and events v^ere confused; where memory failed, 
imagination supplied color and detail, until often there was 
little left that was historic but the names of the heroes 
themselves looming dim through the centuries. Out of such 
historic and legendary lays of the great halls, poets of a 
later generation wove long and stately epics, to be read and 
recited, but no longer sung as of old. The Byzantine his- 
torian Priscus gives an interesting picture of a Germanic 
hall of the fifth century, and of the gleeman's song. Sent 
as an emissary to the hall of Attila, whose court was pat- 
terned after the Germanic fashion, Priscus describes how 
he and his companions, before entering, were offered the 
drinking cup and heard the ancient Germanic greeting "wses 
hael" (wassail). Then they passed to the seats ranged along 
opposite sides of the hall. In the centre raised above the 
others was Attila's seat, and on his right was the seat of 
honor. The guests were greeted in order by the king, who 
drank the health of each, and was greeted standing by each 
in return. When evening came, torches were lighted, and 
two gleemen standing opposite to Attila, recited lays in 
which they praised his victories and his prowess in war. 
*'A11 the guests gazed upon the gleemen ; some were pleased 
by their lays, others were reminded of their own battles and 
were filled with enthusiasm, but some wept, the strength of 
whose bodies had been sapped by time aijd whose fiery 
spirits age had subdued." 

The poem of Widsith owes its preservation to the fact 
that it was copied into the Exeter Book (see introductory 
note: Exeter Book). Widsith comprises 143 lines. Our 
selection gives 1-9, 88-1 11, 127-143. Widsith is the 
name of a typical and imaginary gleeman or minstrel, who 
has visited many lands and sung in the halls of many kings. 
(Old English zmd, far, wide; s'lp, journey.) In Old Eng- 
Hsh the singer was called "scop," from Old English sciep- 
pan, to shape, to create (cf. derivation of poeta). The cata- 
logue of tribes and rulers that forms the co^re of the poem 
points to the period before the English left their continental 
homes on the Elbe and Weser. It is customary to refer to 



NOTES 221 

these lists as having merely an antiquarian value. But in 
the days when Attila, Ermanric, Theodoric, Offa, Hroth- 
gar, Gunther, Wudga, Hama, and the rest of them were 
heroes of well-known lays, the mere mention of their names 
must have had an imaginative and emotional value entirely 
lost to us. "Bare lists of words," says Emerson, "are found 
suggestive to an imaginative and excited mind." These 
memories of the heroes of Germanic Epic preserved in a 
long tradition of oral lays, running back to continental 
times, and variously modified in transit, were finally writ- 
ten down by a monkish scribe who could not resist the temp- 
tation of extending the itinerary of Widsith by including 
the IsraeHtes and the Assyrians, the Medes and the Per- 
sians, the Saracens, and the Moabites, and sundry other im- 
possible bookish tribes and countries. In spite of these in- 
congruities and interpolations, Widsith remains one of the 
most interesting records, as it certainly is the oldest, in the 
literature of the Old English, dealing with the Epic memo- 
ries common to all the Germanic races. (Cf. R. W. Cham- 
bers Widsith: A study in Old English Heroic Legend, 
Cambridge, 1912. A mine of information on the Germanic 
tribes and heroes mentioned in the poem. Also Professor 
Gummere's Oldest English Epic, where the whole of Wid- 
sith is translated and commented on, and W. W. Lawrence, 
Modern Philology, 1906, Vol. IV, p. 329.) 

76. — 1-9. The first nine Hnes form an introduction writ- 
ten in England, probably in the eighth or ninth century, and 
consequently much more recent than the core of the poem, 
which antedates the Anglo-Saxon settlement. "Widsith," 
the far-wanderer, is described as belonging to the Myrgings, 
a Low-German tribe dwelling near the mouth of the Elbe, 
the old home of the Angles. He undertakes a journey to the 
court of the Ostro-Gothic King Ermanric, in the company 
of his queen Alhild. The object of this journey seems to 
have been the marriage of Alhild to Ermanric ; hence she 
is called weaver-of-peace. She leaves her home to become 
the bride of the Ostrogoth, just as in the Nibelungenlied, 
Kriemhild leaves her brothers to marry Attila the Hun. 
Ermanric, king of the Ostrogoths, is a historic figure. He 
died by his own hand in 375 A.D., on account of the de- 



222 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

struction of his kingdom by the Huns. In early Gothic 
tradition he was remembered as a great and famous king, 
whose tragic death, so unHke that of the typical Germanic 
hero, made a profound impression on his people, and 
naturally lent itself to the transforming touch of the imagi- 
nation. Jordanes, a Gothic historian writing nearly two 
hundred years after the death of Ermanric, still calls him 
the noblest of the Amalungs. In later West-Germanic and 
Norse epic tradition his character was entirely changed, and 
he became a type of the tyrant and traitor, cruel and faith- 
less. According to Dear's Complaint, he had a wolfish 
heart, and the writer of the Widsith prologue calls him 
ruthless traitor and treaty-breaker. This later tradition rep- 
resents him as having killed his own son, and having his in- 
nocent wife Swanhild torn to pieces by wild horses. For 
the story of him see Northern Hero Legends, pp. 29 ff. 
76. — 10. I WAS WITH Ermanric, etc. Lines 9-87, omit- 
ted in the translation, comprise lists of tribes and rulers 
supposed to have been visited by Widsith. Line 88 re- 
turns to the subject of Ermanric, and this makes so close a 
connection with the prologue that one wonders whether the 
intervening portions were not interpolated. Dr. Lawrence, 
in his exhaustive study of the structure and interpretation of 
Widsith, says: "This is perhaps the most important di- 
vision of the poem." It is noticeable that the character 
which Widsith himself gives to Ermanric differs from that 
ascribed to him by later tradition, for the "ruthless traitor" 
of the prologue is here pictured as a noble and generous 
king. This in itself is an evidence that the core of the 
poem is older than the prologue. — 12. Gave me a ring. One 
of the commonest kennings or descriptive epithets applied 
to the king in Old English poetry is ring-giver, bracelet- 
bestower. Professor Gummere notes that the heavy gold 
ring is marked with its value, and that spirals of gold 
twisted about the arm were broken off by the king, each 
round having a definite value. Hence the king is also called 
the ring-breaker. — 19. Edwin's Daughter. Edwin, a Lan- 
gobard or Lombard king, known to history as Audoin. The 
original home of the Lombards was on the Elbe, near the 
Angles or Myrgings. Edwin's son, Alboin, invaded Italy 



NOTES 223 

in 568. In a passage omitted in the translation, Widsith 
says, *'I was with Ealfwine [Old Enghsh for Alboin] in 
Italy." Paul the Deacon, a Lombard historian, tells how 
Alboin forced his wife, Rosamond, to drink from a cup 
made of the skull of her own father, whom he had 
killed. (See Swinburne's tragedy, Rosamund, Queen of 
the Lombards.) Historically it is of course impossible that 
Alhild, Edwin's daughter, hence sister of Ealfwine or Al- 
boin, who invaded Italy in the sixth century, should have 
been a contemporary of Ermanric, who died in the fourth, 
and that Widsith, who says he was with Alboin in Italy, 
should have been with Ermanric "all that while"; but Epic 
tradition has no sense of historic perspective. The heroes 
of the past are contemporary in the great Epic cycles, — 
they are seen on the same plane, just as the distant moun- 
tain ranges, fold on fold, merge into one sky-line for the 
eye. So in the Nihelungenlied, Theodoric, the great Ostro- 
goth, is present at the court of Attila the Hun, who died 
two years before Theodoric was born. 

yy. — 10. WuDGA AND Ham A. According to Jordanes, 
Widigoia (Old English Wudga, Widga) was a Gothic hero 
who fell in the wars against the Sarmatians before the time 
of Ermanric. There were lays about him, and he was soon 
drawn into the cycle of Ermanric's heroes, and together with 
Hama became champion of the Gothic king in his wars 
against the Huns. The battle near Wistlawudu, i.e. Vistula- 
wood, here alluded to (the place is mentioned in 1. 121 of the 
original), seems to be a reminiscence of the ancient homes 
of the Goths on the Vistula, before they wandered south to 
the Danube. If this be so, it is the most ancient historic 
reminiscence in Germanic Epic. Hama is the Heime of 
Middle High German Epic. He is mentioned in Beowulf as 
the captor of a famous necklace, "Brisingamene." As cham- 
pions of Ermanric, this pair underwent the same process of 
moral deterioration as their leader, and in later tradition 
become the types of brave but cruel and ruthless slayers. 
In this capacity they figure in the fine Middle High Ger- 
man poem of Alphart's Death. (See Northern Hero Leg- 
ends, p. 122.) 

yy. — 16. Thus fated to wander. The poem closes on 



224 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

the minor chord that rings through so much of Old English 
poetry. So Beowulf says: 

"To each of us here the end must come 
Of Hfe upon earth: let him who may 
Win glory ere death. I deem that best, 
The lot of the brave, when life is over." 

"Vitae summa brevis spem nos vetat inchoare longam." 
But the Germanic conclusion is not Horace's or Omar's 
"Let us drink and be merry, for to-morrow we die," but 
rather "Let us fight and win fame, for to-morrow we fall." 
See also the closing lines of the Battle of Maldon (p. 174), 
and the fine stanza in the Norse Lay of Hamthir: 

"We have fought a good fight, on fallen Goths we stand ; 
Like eagles on treetops high, on the heap of the slain we 

perch. 
Glory great is ours, whether we die to-day or to-morrow, 
For none shall live till evening, when the Norns have 

spoken the word." 

It is the same note that Tennyson strikes in the Ballad of 
the Revenge; and the brave speech of Sir Richard Gren- 
ville seems to echo the very words of the old Germanic 
hero: 

"We have fought such a fight, for a day and a night 
As may never be fought again. 
We have won great glory, my men. 
And a day less or more 
At sea or ashore, 
We die, — does it matter when?" 

2. BIBLICAL EPIC 

Most of Old English narrative poetry on biblical subjects 
is found in the Junian Ms. (see introductory note) and be- 
longs to a school of poetry that is known as Caedmonian, 
from the early ascription of these poems to Caedmon. The 
conversion of the Old English to Christianity brought them 
for the first time into the stream of the Latin as contrasted 
with the Germanic cultural inheritance, and resulted in the 
substitution of Bible Story (literary) for the older Epic 



NOTES 225 

tradition (oral). But the change was very gradual and 
there are various overlappings. Thus the Beowulf poet 
knew the O. E. Genesis, and the author of Exodus, knew 
the Beozvulf. But more important than questions of exact 
date, is the fact that both in form and spirit, these bibHcal 
epics continue the older epic tradition. There is a change 
of characters, but not of character. The old motives, and 
ways of Hfe persist under alien names. (For illustrations 
see notes on The Fall of Man.) 

Fall of Man 

The selection given in the text comprises the greater part 
of the so-called Younger Genesis (Genesis 5), a fragment 
of some 600 lines in ninth or tenth century West Saxon. 
This fragment is found inibedded in the West Saxon ver- 
sion of an older Northumbrian poem on the same subjvTt, 
and was probably inserted to fill a gap in the Ms. of the 
older poem, Genesis A. Owing to certain peculiarities of 
diction and structure. Professor Sievers in 1875 argued that 
this interpolation, which he called Genesis B, was trans- 
lated into the West Saxon from a continental Old Saxun 
original. The subsequent discovery (1894) of fragments 
of this Old Saxon original in the Vatican Library at Rome 
brilliantly verified the hypothesis of Professor Sievers. 
My colleague. Professor G. H. Gerould, suggests M. L. N. 
May 191 1, that a copy of the Old Saxon poem was brought 
to England by a certain Saxon clerk who came from Liege, 
and was in the service of Archbishop Dunstan and his suc- 
cessor, and who wrote the first biography of Dunstan, sign- 
ing himself B. If this hypothesis be correct, we must as- 
sign to the Younger Genesis a date somewhat after 970, 
which is considerably later than that usually given. 

In the same Ms. with the Genesis {A and B) are found 
poems and poetic paraphrases of other portions of the Bib- 
lical narrative. Exodus, Daniel, The Temptation of Christ. 
Its contents were first published in 1655 as Cccdmons Para- 
phrase by the Dutch scholar Junius, (See introductory note 
Junian Ms.) who was under the impression that he had dis- 
covered the poems attributed by Bede to Csedmon. (See 
Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Bk. IV, Chap. 24, Temple 



226 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Classics ed.) Modern scholarship has proved this assump- 
tion unwarranted, and none of the poems of the Junian Ms. 
are now ascribed to Caedmon. 

As Junius was a friend of Milton's it is not at all un- 
likely that he acquainted the author of Paradise Lost with 
the Old English poem on the Fall of Man. On this ques- 
tion see Masson's Life of Milton, 6, 557 note. Stopford 
Brooke, E. E. L., Chap. XV, p. 281, and Chaps. XVI and 
XVII, for parallels between Milton and the Old English 
Genesis. Also A. S. Cook, ''Milton and Csedmon," Acad- 
emy, 34, 420. Prof. C. W. Kennedy gives an excellent 
summary of the contents of the Junian Ms. and of Caed- 
mon criticism in the introduction to his prose translation of 
The Ccedmon Poems. E. P. Dutton & Co., 1916. 

The Old English Fall of Man, with all its crudities and 
wearying repetitions, is full of dramatic vigor, and shows 
considerable skill in characterization and handling of motive. 

78. — I. The Ruler of Hosts, etc. Note how the con- 
ception of the Germanic comitatus underlies this portrayal. 
God is pictured as leader and overlord rather than as 
creator ; he bestows power and is the giver of treasure ; his 
bounty is the source of endowments physical and mental. — 7. 
He dowered them all, etc. The Old Saxon poet is char- 
acterized by his fondness for lines of redundant beats, the 
"Schwellvers," as Professor Sievers calls it. I have tried 
to give the effect of this by the use of five and six beat 
lines with medial pause. — 11. His lord he was bound to 
serve. As the chief virtue of the lord is generosity, the 
chief duty of the thane is loyalty. By emphasizing these 
Germanic motives, the Saxon poet puts Satan in the wrong 
at the very outset, whereas Milton's first portrait of the rebel 
angel tempts us to sympathy if not admiration. No Ger- 
manic audience would have felt anything but unmixed dis- 
approval of a disloyal thane no matter how fine his spirit. 

79. — 16. In the North and West. In Talmudic tradi- 
tion the North was the region of the demons, the East of 
God, the South of the Angels, and the West of Man. In 
Gen. A, Satan strives with God to possess a home and high- 
seat in the North. In 1. 339 Eve says : ''I can see where He 
sits himself, — 'tis South and East — the world's creator." 
In Cynewulf's Crist (see p. 121-8) the Saviour appears on 



NOTES 227 

Judgment Day in the South and East. Cf. Milton's ''Home- 
ward with flying march, where we possess the quarters of 
the North;' Paradise Lost, V, 688. In Henry VI, Pt. I, V, 
Sc. 3, Satan is called "Monarch of the North." For a fine 
poetical rendering of this tradition, see Stephen Hawker's 
Quest of the Sangrail, pp. 178-180. {Poetical Works of 
R. S. Hawker. John Lane, London and New York, 1899.) 
80. — 21. Ever fire or frost. So Milton: 

"the parching air 
Burns frore, and cold performs the effect of fire." 
(See the whole passage. Paradise Lost, U, 594-603.) 
81. — 8. This narrow place is nothing like, etc. 
*'Is this the region, this the soil, the clime. 
Said then the lost archangel, this the seat 
That we must change for heaven," etc. 

— Paradise Lost, I, 243. 

— 23. But iron bonds are all about me. The illu- 
strated Ms. shows Satan held fast in the mouth of hell, 
which is pictured as a dragon. Compare with Satan's 
speech the argument of Beelzebub in Paradise Lost, 11. 

83. — 7. If any there be whom erst I favored. Again 
the Germanic stress on the duty of the thane to repay in 
time of need the generosity of his lord. Cf . Wiglaf 's speech, 
Beozmilf, 63-18, and Battle of Maldon, 202-11. The concep- 
tion of sending a substitute for Satan because he himself 
is unable to go, seems original with the Old Saxon poet. 
Milton makes Satan undertake the journey himself. — 14. 
On Feathery Pinions fly through the air. The 
feather-robe or suit of wings is familiar to Germanic my- 
thology. When Smith Wayland, the Germanic Vulcan, was 
hamstrung by his foe to prevent his escape, he donned his 
feather-robe and flew out through the smoke-hole of his 
smithy. Avitus, a Latin poet of the fourth century who 
wrote a poem on the Fall of Man, and whose work the Old 
Saxon poet may have known, ascribes to Satan the power 
of changing into beast or bird : 

''Alitis interdum subito mentita volantis 
Fit species." 

84. — 6. Set helmet on head. The West-Saxon has 



228 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

hcrlep-helm, i.e. hero-helmet, but Koegel suggests that the 

Old Saxon read helip-helm, i.e. helmet of concealment, the 

"tarn-kappe," or cap of invisibility of Germanic folklore. 

In the Heliand, an Old Saxon alliterative poem on the life 

of Christ, the Devil wears his ''heli{)-helm" to deceive men. 

— 8. He mounted aloft, etc. Cf . Paradise Lost, II, 927 : 

''At last his sail-broad vans 

He spreads for flight, and in the surging smoke 

UpHfted, spurns the ground; thence many a league 

As in a cloudy chair ascending rides," 

and contrast the music of Milton's interlinked alliterations 
with the hammer-blow style of the Anglo-Saxon. 

85. — 18. In the shape of a serpent. The Old English 
word is "worm," the same used for the dragon in Beowulf. 
The "worm" of Germanic folklore is a dragon or serpent 
monster. 

87. — 8. Far from the East. See note on 79-15. 

90. — 29. Yet did she it all in duty and love. The old 
poet saves the character of Eve and enlists our pity for her. 
How different from Milton's Eve, compact of vanity and 
shallow deceitfulness ! {Paradise Lost, ly^, ^16^.) In the 
Old English poem Adam yields from utter weariness, a very 
human touch. Milton makes him eat 

"Against his better knowledge, not deceived 
But fondly overcome with female charm." 

91. — 12. He laughed aloud and leaped for joy. Con- 
trast with this exultant note, Milton's "Back to the thicket 
slunk the guilty serpent." 

The Drowning of the Egyptians 

The Exodus is one of the poems found in the Junian Ms. 
Its date is unknown, but it is certainly much older than the 
Younger Genesis, and was probably composed in Northum- 
bria. It contains 589 lines, and the translated passage 
fairly illustrates the descriptive vigor of the poem, its im- 
aginative intensity and vividness of phrase, and also the 
variation and repetition so characteristic of Old English 
verse. While long stretches of verse in the Junian Ms. are 
mere alliterative paraphrase of the Bible story, the Exodus 



NOTES 229 

stands out as an independent poem, created by the imagina- 
tion of the unknown author out of the Old Testament nar- 
rative. For a literary appreciation, see Stopford Brooke, 
E. E. L., pp. 315-324. For a brief, critical discussion of the 
problems involved see Professor F. A. Blackburn's intro- 
duction to his edition of Exodus and Daniel in the Belles 
Lettres Series (D. C. Heath and Co., 1907). The Exodus 
presents unusual difficulties to the translator. This is not 
the place to justify the renderings adopted. Students of 
Old English should compare Professor Blackburn's notes 
on the passage. 

94. — 20. When the dark upheaval o'erwhelmed them 
ALL. This rendering is based on Professor Blackburn's 
emendation of a corrupt passage in the text. Professor 
Blackburn translates : "Then on them fell the hugest of 
wild waves, dark with its towering mass." 

3. SAINTS' LEGENDS 

A considerable part of Old English narrative poetry deals 
with Saints' Legends, and reflects the early popularity of 
this type of medieval literature among the Anglo-Saxons. 
A special interest attaches to the Old English poems of this 
genre, because the name of the foremost Old English poet 
is intimately associated with them. In two long poems, 
Elene and Juliana, and the fragment of a third The Fates of 
the Apostles, we find the name Cynewulf woven into the 
text. Others, like Andreas and at least the second part of 
Guthlac, are by many scholars ascribed to Cynewulf al- 
though we do not find his name signed to these poems. 

The older Epic was northern, pagan, and Germanic in 
origin, and though in its literary form it shows the Chris- 
tian influence and no doubt owed its preservation to the 
monastery, its ideals were those of the pre-Christian heroic 
age of the Germanic peoples. With the introduction of 
Christianity, the Biblical narrative gradually displaced the 
older epic tradition, and we find the events and characters 
of the Old and New Testaments and the apocrypha, kind- 
ling the imagination of the epic poet, though the spirit of the 
narrative poems in the Junian Ms. and of Judith and Holo- 
fernes is still that of the pagan epic, with its delight in 



230 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

warfare and its emphasis upon the old Germanic virtues: 
generosity in the king, loyalty in his followers, bravery in 
battle, and love of fame. In the legendary narratives of 
which Elene and Guthlac are examples, there is a distinct 
change of atmosphere. Not only do these poems derive 
their subject-matter and inspiration from the legendary lit- 
erature of the Latin church, but the monastery and the saint 
have definitely taken the place of the hall and the warrior 
as the centre of outlook upon life. The gleeman is gone 
and fidelity to the faith supplants loyalty to the leader in 
battle; heavenly joy and rewards take the place of the 
revelry and ring-giving in the mead-hall. The tone has be- 
come ecclesiastical, and the temper more inward and spirit- 
ual. The battle is now with the powers of evil. In the place 
of Beowulf's wrestlings against monsters of fen and mere, 
we have wrestlings against principalities and powers, the 
spirits of evil and against their chief, Satan himself. And 
yet the ecclesiastical poet, like the monks in Arnold's 
Grande Chartreuse ofttimes hears the old martial music 
beating upon the walls of his quiet retreat and his imagi- 
nation kindles to the appeal of the old call to action, battle, 
and adventure. For the finest sea-piece in Old English 
poetry we must go, not to Beowulf, but to the Elene, and 
whenever the war-trumpets sound, the poet forgets his Latin 
legend, and watches the raven circling over the host, or 
listens to the eagle and the wolf holding converse over the 
bodies of the slain. 

In form, the poetry of Saints' Legends carries on the 
epic tradition, — the old formulas, the conventionaHzed fig- 
ures, the kennings for ship and sea and sword and spear 
recur again and again; there is the same parallelism of 
structure, and the goal of the narrative is finally reached by 
the same circuitous route, along the same "by-paths and 
indirect crook'd ways" as in Beowulf. ""Poems like Elene 
and Andreas lie nearer the old epic highways ; their action 
is mainly outward, there is abundance of adventure, jour- 
neys by land and sea, the crashing of lance against shield. 
In others again as in Juliana and Guthlac, the conflict is 
mainly an inner one, — materialized to be sure and projected 
into the outer world of demons and angels — but still in es- 



NOTES 231 

sence inward and spiritual, with the ideals of sainthood 
dominating the whole. We have chosen Elene as a type of 
the former, and Guthlac as a type of the latter, in these 
selections. (For Saints' Legends as a literary type see G. li. 
Gerould, Saints' Legends, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1916.) 

The Legend of the Cross 
The Legend of the Cross. The story of the emperor Con- 
stantine's conversion to Christianity through the apparition 
of the cross on the battlefield, and of the subsequent dis- 
covery of the true cross by his mother Helena (O. E. 
Elene), gave rise to a vast body of medieval legendary lore. 
The story of the quest and discovery of the Grail, the cup 
used by the Saviour at the last supper, and of the lance 
with which his side was pierced, belong to the same legen- 
dary complex. While the Cross legend remained almost 
entirely ecclesiastical, the Grail and lance legend, through 
blending with Celtic folk-lore, and association with the 
Arthurian cycle, early entered the secular literature of the 
Middle Ages. Tennyson's Holy Grail and Stephen Hawk- 
er's fine Quest of the Sangrail, are modern versions of this 
grail quest. In Wagner's Parsifal, based on Wolfram's 
medieval poem, the quest of the sacred lance has become 
the leading motif. Tennyson's Galahad may be compared 
with Guthlac as early and late treatments of the saintly ideal 
in English poetry. On the Cross legend among the Anglo- 
Saxons, see note, p. 241 fif, W. O. Stevens, The Cross in the 
Life and Literature of the Anglo-Saxons (Yale Studies 
XXHI, Henry Holt & Co.) and A. S. Cook, The Old Eng- 
lish Elene, Phoenix and Physiologus, Yale University Press, 
1919. 

- The Sources of the FAen e^. The Elene is a poem of 1320 
lines found in the Vercelli Book. (See note on Vercelli book, 
p. 189.) The narrative proper ends with line 1235. Lines 
1 236- 1 320 constitute an autobiographic epilog in which the 
poet Cynewulf introduces his name in runic characters. 
Cynewulf may have used as his source the Acta Sanctorum, 
where St. Helena's journey to Jerusalem and her discovery 
of the cross and nails is described. A later and completer 
form of the story is found in the Golden Legend. Historic 
data. Eusebius in his Life of Constantine (Book I, Chap. 



232 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

28) tells the following story: "About midday, when the 
sun was beginning to decline, he saw with his own eye the 
trophy of a cross of light, in the heavens, and above the 
sun, and bearing the inscription: Conquer by this." (The 
whole passage will be found translated in Cook's edition of 
the Elene, p. XXIL) Helena's journey to Jerusalem 
is related in the ecclesiastical histories of Socrates and So- 
zomen. The latter tells how Helena obtained her knowledge 
of the place where the cross was buried from one of the 
Hebrews, who had it by tradition from his forefathers. This 
is the original source of the Judas incident in Cynewulf's 
poem. The later history of the cross is variously told. Ac- 
cording to general tradition part of it was left by Helena 
in Jerusalem, in the church built on the site of the discovery. 
This portion was said to have been carried off in 614 but 
recovered by the emperor Heraclitus in 628. Its restoration 
to the church at Jerusalem was later commemorated on 
"Holy Rood Day" (Sept. 14). A fragment said to have 
been brought by Helena to Constantinople was supposed to 
have been later removed to the Sainte Chapelle in Paris. 

The Authorship of the Elene. At the close of the poem 
the name ''Cynewulf" is woven into the verse in runic char- 
acters. The same name, similarly signed, is found in three 
other poem.s, Crist, Juliana, and the Fates of the Apostles. 
(See note on Cynewulf's Crist, p. 239). Immediately pre- 
ceding the runic insertion there is a passage in which the 
poet gives some account of himself. As this autobiographic 
epilog, though not a part of the narrative proper, is at- 
tached to Elene, and as it is our chief source of informa- 
tion concerning Cynewulf himself, we give it here in trans- 
lation, reproducing the combination of rime and alliteration 
in which it is written. (The so-called Rime-poem, see p. 
246, uses the same device, which is frequent in Scandinavian 
alliterative verse.) 

Thus weary of the strife of this woful life, (1236) 
I spun my song, and studied it long. 
Deeply I pondered, darkly I wondered, 
When the night-watches fell ; nor knew I well 
The rood's strange story, till a radiant glory 
Unlocked by the might of its marvellous light 



NOTES 233 

The gates of my mind. Guilty I pined, 

By woe enchained, by wickedness stained, 

Sorrow-driven, my sins unshriven. 

Till I learned the way of weaving a lay, 

In age to uphold my heart consoled. 

God through his power gave me the dower 

Of story and song. His spirit was strong 

My words to unwind, to awaken my mind, 

Loosen the lays that I lift in his praise 

With love and delight, while I live among men.* 

Not once, but often within me I pondered 

The cross of glory, ere I came to unfold 

The marvel rare of the radiant tree 

As I found it in books in the fulness of time 

Writ to reveal the victory-token.^ 

After this come the lines in which Cynewulf has in- 
scribed his name. In reading the runes in this passage it 
must be remembered that instead of being called by their 
sounds as in the English (Latin) alphabet, the runes are 
named after familiar words that begin with their respective 
sounds, just as in our rimed children's alphabets. Thus 
"th," indicated by the runic symbol J) which became a regu- 
lar letter in the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, was called ''thorn." 
In the signed passage in Elene, the runes play a double role. 
As letters they spell out the name Cynewulf; as words they 
fill out the sense of the lines. In an Old English poem that 
gives the key to rune-words, — a rimed rune alphabet — the 
rune letters occurring in Cynewulf are given the following 
names: h-C cen, fire, torch; R-Y yr, bow; +-N nyd, 
need; M-E eoh, horse; ^--W wyn, joy (cf. winsome); 
Pl-U ur-(ox) (German aur-ochs) ; l^-L lagu, water; p^-F 
feoh, wealth (fee) ; C, Y, and U cannot well have the 
meaning in Cynewulf's lines that they have in the rune- 
poem, but he might easily after the manner of the rebus 
have used them for other words of the same sound (cf. eye, 
I; hour, our; you, yew). Thus cen, besides meaning ''fire" 
or "torch" might stand for the adjective "cene," keen- 
hearted; "yr" for the first syllable of "yrm{)u," woe; 

^At this point the rimed portion ends. 

2 See note on The Vision of the Cross, p. 241. 



234 



OLD ENGLISH POETRY 



and ''ur" for the pronoun "ur" our. Thus interpreted the 
passage would read as follows, inserting for the letters of 
Cynewulf 's name the meaning they bear in the margin : 



C cene 

keen-hearted 
Y yrmjDU, woe 

N nyd, need 
E eoh, horse 

W wyn, joy 

U ur, ours 



L lagu, water 
F feoh, (fee) 
wealth 



Beaten by care-billows, the C droops 
Though often treasures and appled gold 
He had gained in the mead-hall, he mourns 

his Y. 
By N companioned he now endures 
A narrow fortune, though aforetime his E 
Measured the mile-paths, merrily pranced 
With jewelled bridle-rein. W is fled, 
Gone with the years. Youth is departed, 
The old-time pride. U was once 
The gleam of youth, but the years have gone ; 
The prime of life is passed forever, 
Rushed away, like running L, 
Like a flowing stream. So fleeting is F 
To all under heaven. So earth's bright hues 
Wane 'neath the welkin like a wind that riseth 
Roaring aloud, o'er the land it rages. 
Sweeps the skies and scours the main, 
Then suddenly ceasing, silent falls 
Narrowly penned in its prison cell. 

The rune-passage is appended in the original for com- 
parison : 

A waes saec oj) J)aet 
cnyssed cearwelmum, f*i drusende 
|:)eah he medohealle maj^mas {)ege, 
aeplede gold. RJ gnornode 
4s gefera nearusorge dreah 
enge rune, J^ser him M fore 
milpal)as mset, modig \)V3£gde, 
wirum gewlenced. ^ is geswij^rad 
gomen sefter gearum. geogoj) is gecyrred 
aid onmedla. H waes geara 
geogol^hades glaem. nu synt geardagas 
aefter fyrstmearce for}) gewitene, 
lif Wynne geliden, swa (^ toglide^ 
flodas gefysde. f^ aegwham bi{) 
laene under lyfte. 



NOTES 235 

For a fuller discussion of the rune-passage see Cook's 
Crist Albion ed. : 151 ff., C. W. Kennedy, Poems of Cyne- 
zviilf 7 f¥. C. F. Brown, Englische Studien 38, 196, and 
Cook's Elene, p. 98 ff. Earlier scholars tried to construct a 
biography of Cynewulf out of the allusions in the rune- 
passage to the "appled gold" in the mead hall, and the 
"prancing steed," suggesting that he was a wandering min- 
strel, and like the author of Deor's complaint suffered mis- 
fortunes in later life. But Professor Brown has shown that 
the rune signatures themselves are not autobiographical, 
and all that remains is the testimony to a profound re- 
ligious experience, a ''conversion," the genuineness and 
depth of which is borne out by the character of the poems 
to which Cynewulf has signed his name. 

95. — 5. In the circle of years. The first two lines are 
from Professor Kennedy's prose rendering. The date of 
the battle was 312, and it was actually fought against the 
generals of Maxentius. Constantine had been proclaimed 
emperor by the army, at York in 306. The date of Helena's 
discovery is given as 326. But it was not until the end of 
the 4th century and in the West that the legend of St. 
Helena appeared. 

97. — 20. To Caesar himself as in slumber he lay. 
The source of Constantine's vision is in the Life of Con- 
stantine by Eusebius Bk. i, chaps. 28-31. The whole pas- 
sage is translated in Cook's Crist, p. 190. According to 
Eusebius the vision of the cross in battle came first and the 
dream after. In Cynewulf's poem nothing is said of the 
vision on the battle-field. 

98. — 22. Gave orders to make. See the description of 
Eusebius : *'At dawn of day he arose and . . . calling to- 
gether the w^orkers in gold and precious stones, he sat in 
the midst of them, and described to them the figure of the 
sign he had seen, bidding them represent it in gold and 
precious stones. And this representation I have myself 
had an opportunity of seeing. Now it was made in the 
following manner: A long spear, overlaid with gold, 
formed the figure of the cross, by means of a piece laid 
transversely over it. On the top of the whole was fixed a 
crown, formed by the intertexture of gold and precious 



236 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

stones ; and on this, two letters indicating the name of 
Christ symbohzed the Saviour's title by means of its first 
characters — the letter P (the Greek R) being intersected 
by X (Gr. Ch) exactly in its centre; and these letters the 
emperor was in the habit of wearing on his helmet. From 
the transverse piece which crossed the spear was suspended 
a kind of streamer of purple cloth covered with a profuse 
embroidery of most brilliant precious stones." See note 
68-13. 

loi. — II. They drove o'er the flood. Compare the 
description of the storm in Andreas 1. 369 f¥. 

The sea grew stormy, stirred was the deep. 
The home of the whale ; the horned fish played. 
Gambolled in the waves, and the gray sea-mew 
Circled greedy; the sky was darkened. 
The gale waxed stronger, the surges roared. 
The billows rose, the rigging moaned, 
They were drenched in brine by the breaking seas, 
And terror of ocean entered their hearts. 

Wedercandel swearc is exactly ''the Hft grew dark" and 
onhrered hwcelmere is "and gurly grew the sea" of the bal- 
lad of Sir Patrick Spens and with zvaedo gewaette compare : 

O laith, laith were our gude Scots lords 
To wet their cork-heeled shoon 

107. — 15. There since that day. Our selection closes 
with line 1032. Section XIII of the Ms. describes the dis- 
covery of the nails used at the crucifixion, and then follows 
the personal passage discussed in the introductory note 
to Elene. 

^,^ The Life of Guthlac 

In the Exeter book are found two poems, formerly con- 
sidered as one, on the life of St. Guthlac. The first (A) 
runs to line 790 and is known as Guthlac the Hermit; the 
second (B) from 791 to 1353 and is known as Guthlac' s 
Death. Our selection is from the latter, which has far 
higher poetic merit, and may well have been written by 
Cynewulf, though there is no convincing evidence as to his 
authorship. 



NOTES 237 

The Source. — Guthlac was an English saint, of the eastern 
fens. His Hfe was written about the middle of the 8th 
century by Felix of Croyland, a monk attached to the ab- 
bey that rose on the site of Guthlac's retreat. "Wilder even 
than the western woodland was the desolate fen-country on 
the eastern border of Mercia stretching from the 'Holland/ 
the sunk, hollow land of Lincolnshire, to the channel of the 
Ouse, a wilderness of shallow waters and reedy islets 
wrapped in its own dark mist-veil, and tenanted only by 
flocks of screaming wild-fowl. . . . Here Guthlac, a youth 
of the royal race of Mercia, sought a refuge from the world 
in the solitudes of Crowland, and so great was the rever- 
ence he won, that only two years had passed since his death 
when the stately abbey of Crowland rose over his tomb. 
Earth was brought in boats to form a site; the buildings 
rested on oaken piles driven into the marsh; a great stone 
church replaced the hermit's cell, and the toil of the new 
brotherhood changed the pools around them into fertile 
meadowland." (J. R. Green, A Short History of the Eng- 
lish People, p. 67.) 

The date of Guthlac's death is given by Felix as 714. In 
the Latin Hfe {Acta Sanctorum vol. H for April, 37fif.) 
we are told that Guthlac was accompanied to the island of 
Croyland (Crowland) in the fens by two companions from 
his monastery. One of them, Beccel by name, became jeal- 
ous of the saint and tried to poison him. But Guthlac di- 
vined his intention, and Beccel repented and became Guth- 
lac's devoted servant until his death. The name of Guth- 
lac's sister is given as Pega. 

Guthlac B follows the Latin life more closely than A. 
The author of the first Guthlac poem imagines the saint's 
retreat in a mountainous country (O. E. beorg cf. lines 73, 
119, 146, 163, 234, 300, 354, 410, 705). There is no ref- 
erence at all to mountains in the second Guthlac, but the 
poet correctly places the saint's retreat on an island (line 
1299 beofade pact ealond), and in true Cynewulfian man- 
ner describes in detail the journey by water made by Beccel 
after Guthlac's death. The hounding of Guthlac by evil 
demons, the apparition of the heavenly messenger, (St. 
Bartholomew in the Latin life), the radiance above the 



238 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

death-bed are all regular features of the Saint legend, but 
the warmth of the friendship between the saint and his 
young disciple, the dramatic touches, and the tender hu- 
man quality are the poet's own, and are not unworthy of 
Cynewulf. For an excellent summary of Guthlac criticism 
see C. W. Kennedy, The Poems of Cynewulf, pp. 51-56. 

11. LYRIC POETRY 

The term "Lyric Poetry" is here loosely used to desig- 
nate poems in which the note of personal emotion pre- 
dominates. Lyric poetry in the more specific sense, the Old 
English had none. All the poems classed as "lyric" are in 
the Germanic alliterative verse, but both in the poems classed 
as religious lyrics and in those classed as secular lyrics, espe- 
cially in those of the Cynewulfian school, there is something 
of the "lyric cry," and the Wanderer and the Seafarer come 
near to being true lyrics. 

I. RELIGIOUS LYRIC 

C^DMON 

Northumbrian Hymn 

The familiar story of Csedmon, the shepherd poet of 
Whitby, is told by Bede in his Ecclesiastical History (Bk. 4, 
Chap. 24, Temple Classics). Csedmon began to compose 
poetry about 670, and the Northumbrian hymn in all prob- 
ability represents his first attempt at sacred song. A pecu- 
liar interest therefore attaches to this hymn, because it is 
the first passage of English poetry whose date and author- 
ship are definitely known. The original Northumbrian ver- 
sion of the hymn is preserved in an old Ms. of Bede's his- 
tory, and was copied there about 737. We give the original 
Northumbrian verses below, as a specimen of the oldest 
form of English verse, — older than the West Saxon ver- 
sion of the Beowulf. 

"Nu scylun hergan hefsenricas uard, 
metudses msecti end his modgidanc, 
uerc uuldur-fadur, swe he uundra gihuaes 
eci dryctin or asteHdse. 



NOTES 239 

He aerist scop selda barnum 

heben til hrofe haleg scepen; 

tha middungeard moncynnes uard, 

eci dryctin aefter tiadse 

firum foldan, frea allmectig. 

Primo cantauit Csedmon istud carmen." 

(See Professor Kennedy's The Caedmon Poems.) 

CYNEWULF 
Hymn of Praise 

The Hymn of Praise is taken from Cynewulf's Crist, 
Part I, 11. ZAl-Zll' The Crist is a poem of three parts in 
which are celebrated the Advent, the Ascension, and the 
Second Coming of Christ (Doomsday). There is in the 
Old Saxon dialect a poem called the Heliand, Saviour (Ger- 
man, Heiland), probably by the same writer who composed 
the Younger Genesis, which presents the life of Christ in 
narrative form on the background of Germanic manners and 
customs, in the style of the old Germanic Epic. The Crist, 
on the other hand, is a series of essentially lyric poems, 
based on the antiphones, hymns, and homilies of the Latin 
Church. "We must conceive of Cynewulf as so thrilled by 
the sweet and solemn chanting of the greater Antiphones 
of Advent . . . that he gladly yielded to the impulse to re- 
produce them in English under the form of variations. . . . 
He abridged, expanded, suppressed, or transferred, as his 
genius suggested, freely interpolated matter from other 
sources, and welded the whole together by closing with a 
magnificent doxology." (A. S. Cook, Introduction to Crist, 
p. XLH. Albion Series, Ginn and Co.) The personal, 
lyric note predominates in Cynewulf's Crist, and the rough 
music of the old alliterative verse is softened to express 
the new emotions of a personal religion. The passages from 
the Crist are especially notable as affording an early in- 
stance of that Hturgic genius of the English language which 
finds its fullest expression in the Book of Common Prayer. 

Near the close of the second part of Crist, the name 
"Cynewulf" is woven into the verse in runic characters. 
The same name, similarly signed, is found in three other 



240 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

poems, Elene, Juliana, and The Fates of the Apostles, all 
of them based on Latin saints' legends. For a translation 
of all these signed passages, see Professor Cook's introduc- 
tion to the Dream of the Rood (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 
1905). In the passage of the Elene (11. 1237-1257) im- 
mediately preceding the runic insertion, the poet gives some 
account of himself from which we gather that he was at 
the time an old man, and that he had undergone a deep re- 
ligious experience, as a result of which his spirit, pre- 
viously fettered by sin, found peace, and was inspired to 
sacred song. He was probably a Northumbrian, and lived 
at the end of the eighth century. Many other poems be- 
sides the ones above mentioned have been ascribed to Cyne- 
wulf, among them the Phoenix and the Dream of the Rood, 
or Vision of the Cross, both of which are represented in the 
translations. Though neither of these poems is signed, 
there is good reason for thinking they are by Cynewulf. 
For a survey of Cynewulf criticism, and a summary of its 
results, see Cook's introduction to his edition, quoted above, 
and Kennedy's introduction to Cynewulf s Poems trans- 
lated into English Prose. 

The Voyage of Life 
These lines are based on the following passage of Greg- 
ory's homily on the Ascension : "But let hope, as an anchor 
of the soul fixed within the heavenly country whither Jesus 
our forerunner is entered, hold us steadfast amid the fluc- 
tuations of this mortal hfe." Our selection is typical of 
the way in which Cynewulf expands and makes poetry out 
of his Latin originals. 

Doomsday 

This passage is from Crist, Part III, 11. 867-874; 878-909; 
972-1006. Many of the hymns and homilies of the Latin 
Church dealt with the Last Judgment, and the subject was 
a favorite one with the Old English writers. Compare the 
well-known hymn Dies irae, dies ilia. Cynewulf was prob- 
ably familiar with an alphabetic hymn quoted by Bede, be- 
ginning thus: 



NOTES 241 

"Apparebit repentina, dies magna domini 
fur obscura velut nocte improvises occupans." 

(Suddenly shall appear the great day of the Lord, like a 
thief in the night falling on the unsuspecting.) 

''Clangor tubac per quaternas terrae plagas concinens 
vivos una mortuosque Christo ciet obviam." 

(The blast of the trumpet, sounding through the four quar- 
ters of the earth, shall call before Christ the living and the 
dead.) Professor Cook prints the whole hymn in his in- 
troduction to the Crist, p. 171, and quotes Stopford Brooke: 
"This trumpet voice of the heart belongs to the English na- 
ture, and the lofty music of Milton's praise came down to 
him in legitimate descent from the earliest exultations of 
English psalm." 

122. — 8. From South and East, etc. See note on the 
Fall of Man, 79-15. 

The Vision of the Cross 
The Vision of the Cross, generally called the Dream of 
the Rood, is found in the Vercelli Book. The authorship 
of the Vision is unknown, but there are strong reasons for 
believing that Cynewulf wrote it. The Elene, one of Cyne- 
wulf's signed poems, is inspired by the story of Constan- 
tine's famous vision of the cross ; and the discovery of the 
true cross by Consantine's mother Helena (Elene) forms 
the main subject of that poem. In the personal passage re- 
ferred to above (see note on Elene), Cynewulf says: 

''Not once but often within me I pondered 
The Cross of Glory, ere I came to unfold 
The marvel rare of the radiant tree 
As I found it in books in the fulness of time, 
Writ to reveal the victory-token" (11. 1253- 1257). 

Even if we do not interpret these words as a direct ref- 
erence to the Vision, as some critics have done, the personal 
note in the Vision of the Cross is so close to that revealed 
in the personal passages of the Crist and the Elene, that it is 
difficult to believe that Cynewulf did not write this tender- 
est and most deeply felt of Old English religious poems. 



242 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

For a convenient review of the authorship problem, see 
Cook's edition {Dream of the Rood, Clarendon Press, 
I9<^5)> and Kennedy's introduction to the Poems of Cyne- 
zviilf, pp. 62-68. The dramatic personification of inanimate 
objects is a common device in Old English poetry. Cf. The 
Riddles and The Husband's Message. 

Apart from its literary value, a peculiar interest attaches 
to the Vision of the Cross because some lines of the poem 
are inscribed in runic characters on the Ruthwell Cross, an 
ancient monumental stone, still preserved at Ruthwell in 
Annandale, near the Scottish border. 

123. — 24. List to the words of a wondrous vision. 
Compare the vision of Constantine: "About midday, when 
the sun was beginning to decline, he saw with his own eyes 
the trophy of a cross of light, in the heavens, above the 
sun, and bearing the inscription: Conquer by this." (Euse- 
bius. Life of Constantine, Bk. I, Chap. 28. Cynewulf de- 
scribes this vision of Constantine in Elene, 11. 68-85. There 
is a similar Cross vision at the close of the Crist, 11. 1083 sq.) 

124. — 5. 'TwAS NO gallows-tree. In the Old English, 
as in the other Germanic dialects, the word "gallows" was 
also used to signify the cross. See Cent. Diet., "Gallows." 
In form the T-shaped St. Anthony's cross closely resembled 
a gallows. — 24. Many years ago, etc. A portion of the 
Vision is in the longer alliterative line also appearing in the 
Younger Genesis. As the expanded lines predominate in 
the narrative portions, and the shorter lines in the lyric por- 
tions, I have used the lines of different length to mark this 
distinction throughout. 

125. — 6. Then stripped the mighty hero. The heroic 
note comes out strong here. The voluntary character of the 
sacrifice of Christ, emphasized by the Latin Church writers, 
appealed to the Germanic mind. Yet, curiously enough, in 
the Heliand it is not found, — we have mere paraphrase at 
this point. See also Milton's 

"Most perfect hero tried in heaviest plight 
Of labours huge and hard, too hard for human wight." 

— The Passion, 13, 14. 

On the Ruthwell Cross are found the words in runic char- 
acters "[Un] clothed Himself God Almighty, when He 



NOTES 243 

would mount the cross, courageous in the sight of all men." 
For a description of the Ruthwell Cross, and a literal ren- 
dering of three other passages from the Vision, inscribed 
thereon, see Cook and Tinker, Translations from Old Eng- 
lish Poetry (Ginn and Co., 1903), pp. 100-102. — 11. I 
STOOD, A CROSS UPLIFTED. Literally, ''A Rood was I up- 
reared." Professor Cook quotes from a Middle English 
poem of the thirteenth century to show how this alliterative 
formula persisted: 

''High upon a down 

there all folk it see may 
A mile from the town 

about the midday 
The rood is up areared 

His friends are afeared 

and clingeth to the clay. 
The rood stands in stone 
Mary stands alone 

and saith 'Welaway.' " 

— 12. The King of Glory I carried. A cross preserved 
in the Cathedral of Brussels, and said to contain fragments 
of the true cross, has an Old English inscription of two 
lines apparently taken from the Vision: 

"Cross am I called, the King long since 
Trembling I bore, with blood besprent." 

126. — 18. Chanted a lay of mourning. The same 
phrase is used in the description of Beowulf's burial, where 
the comrades of the hero circle about his barrow in solemn 
procession and say that 

"He was mildest of men and most beloved 
Kindest of kings, and keenest for honor." 

All but the last phrase might have been used in the chant 
of mourning at Christ's grave, but the necessary elimination 
of that last epithet, "keenest for honor," shows the differ- 
ence between the old Germanic and the Christian ideal. 
According to the latter, "fame" is "the last infirmity of 
noble mind," whereas the virtues of Beowulf culminate in 
his eagerness for fame. 



244 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

127. — 2. Long I stood, etc. The Ms. is defective at this 
point, and the translation compresses several lines into one. 
In the original it is "we" stood, "we" were felled, "we" 
were buried, etc. The crosses of the malefactors are meant, 
which according to the legend were found by the side of 
the cross of Christ by Helena. — 87. At this point 11. 91-121 
of the original are omitted. They are far inferior to the 
rest of the poem, and read like a homiletic interpolation. 

128. — 12. May He who suffered, etc. The last five 
lines of our version represent, but are hardly a translation 
of, 11. 144-156 of the original. The conditions under which 
Old EngHsh poetry was transmitted make it only too prob- 
able that interpolations and additions by inferior hands 
often mar the original. The translator whose aim it is to 
be faithful to the spirit of the original has a right to exer- 
cise a freedom not permissible were he editing the original 
text. He is certainly under no obligation to perpetuate in 
modern verse the maunderings of pious but prosy scribes. 
Of the lines in question the Clarendon Press editor of the 
Dream of the Rood says : "The conclusion ... is in quite 
a different manner, and seems alien to the prevailing senti- 
ment of the poem. It is cool and objective in tone, and 
has no necessary vital relation to what has preceded. Pend- 
ing further elucidation, we can only conclude that it has 
either come here by accident, or that the poet's judgment 
was at fault. The poem should have ended with 148 a, or 
perhaps better with 146." 

The Phoenix 

The Phoenix is a poem of Gyy lines, preserved in the 
Exeter Book. The translation gives 11. 1-264, and 11. 570- 
677. The poem is unsigned, but has many of the character- 
istics of Cynewulf's style. For a summary of critical opin- 
ion on the question of authorship, see Cook's introduction to 
Cynewulf's Crist, p. LXIII, Kennedy's introduction to the 
Cynewulf poems, pp. 56-62, and Cook's Elene, Phoenix, etc. 
The PJiaiiix is based on a Latin poem by Lactantius, (ca. 
300 A.D.). (The Latin poem is printed in Bright's Anglo- 
Saxon Reader, Appendix I, and an English translation in 
Cook, p. 124.) It is known that the works of Lactantius 



NOTES 245 

were in the library at York, and Cynewulf may have read the 
Latin poem there. The story of the Phoenix, which rises 
again from its own ashes, was a favorite theme of the early 
Christian writers, and was interpreted by them as a symbol 
of the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting. 
''This allegorical treatment of the life of beasts and birds, 
and also of the great tales of the world; the taking up of 
the whole of natural history into the realm of the spiritual 
— human thoughts and emotions being imputed to animals — 
is of great antiquity, and especially among the Semitic peo- 
ples ; through the Old Testament, through the Talmud, 
through the parables of Christ, it descended to the early 
Christian writers. . . . Ambrose, for example, uses the 
phoenix as the symbol of the resurrection." Stopford 
Brooke, E. E. L. In a collection of a hundred Latin riddles, 
ascribed to Symphosius, there is the following on the 
Phoenix : 

"Vita mihi mors est, si coepero nasci 

Sed prius est fatum leti quam lucis origo ; 

Sic solus manes ipsos mihi dico parentes." 
(Death is life to me, if I begin to be born. But first comes 
the fate of dissolution, before the beginning of Hfe. Thus 
I am alone in giving the name of parents to my ancestral 
shades.) The first part of the poem relates the fable of the 
Phoenix, after Lactantius, but the 170 lines of the original 
are expanded into 380 in the Old English version. The sec- 
ond part, containing the Christian interpretation and ap- 
plication of the fable, is the EngHsh poet's own addition. 
Though inspired by his Latin original, the vividness and 
beauty of the landscape belong largely to the Old EngHsh 
poet, and the fervors of Christian joy and hope are entirely 
his. The Phoenix is interesting as one of the earliest ex- 
amples in English literature of ideal landscape. Contrast in 
this respect the landscape in Beowulf, and compare with 
the landscape in the Pearl. 

129. — 14. No HILL-SIDES STEEP NOR HOLLOWS DEEP. Ex- 
amples of this sort of rime combined with alliteration are 
not uncommon in Old English verse. Lines 15-16 of the 
Phoenix read: 

"Ne forstes fnaest, ne fyres blasst 
Ne haegles hryre, ne hrimes dryre." 



246 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

This complicated form was common in Old Norse poetry. 
There is in the Exeter Book an Old English poem of 87 
lines, the so-called rime-poem, (see p. 232) composed in 
this fashion. See also the personal passage in Elene, p. 232. 

132. — 30. Harmonies clear of organ-pipes. Organs 
were introduced into church-worship in England by Theo- 
dore of Tarsus, Archbishop of Canterbury, toward the close 
of the seventh century. — 32. Music of the swan. Liter- 
ally "the feathers of the swan." The Anglo-Saxons be- 
lieved that the music of the swan was made, not with its 
voice, but with its feathers, as the wind swept through them. 
See the Swan riddle, p. 155. The words describing the 
sound of the singing feathers, are the same in the Phoenix 
passage, and in the riddle. The Latin poem has ''olor 
moriens," in allusion to the fabled song of the dying swan. 

133. — 14. Worn with winters a thousand. The Ger- 
manic peoples counted years by winters, and days by nights. 
The phrase is therefore equivalent to "a thousand years 
old." Cf . Beowulf. 

136. — 9. Taint of sin all taken away. Literally "sun- 
dered from sin." This ornitheological observation antici- 
pates the Christian application of the second part of the 
poem. — 10. Like as when men, etc. This is one of the 
few elaborate similes found in Anglo-Saxon literature. 

137. — I. A Man of God, etc. An allusion to Job xix: 26, 
"And though after my skin, worms destroy this body, yet 
in my flesh shall I see God." In 1. 549 of the original, ex- 
press mention is made of the "sayings of Job" (the word is 
giedding, a. proverbial saying in alliterative speech, some- 
thing to be quoted and handed down). Then follows, 11. 
552-569, a free paraphrase of the Vulgate version of Job 
xix 125-27. — 16. To the land of delight. "The popular 
consciousness of the Anglo-Saxons assimilated the idea of 
the kingdom of heaven under the old epic figure of the 
tribal family-seat, the ancestral homestead, epel, eard. 
Neither of the chief Old German religious poems Otfrid 
and Heliand nationalized the conception of the life here- 
after. To the poet of the Heliand it is a world of light which 
he is unable to picture in detail. (See also the emphasis 
on light as a characteristic of heaven in the Younger Gene- 



NOTES 247 

sis of Old Saxon origin, /. D. S.) Only the Anglo-Saxons 
created a genuine religious epic, a body of Christian poetry 
steeped in the popular consciousness of the Anglo-Saxon 
people" (Ehrisman, Zum Germanischen Friih Christentum, 
Beitrcrge, Vol. 35, 1909). 

140. — 5. Leave hath granted us lucis auctor. The 
Phoonix poet, at the close of his poem, has adopted the 
peculiar device of linking together by means of alliteration 
Anglo-Saxon and Latin half-lines. In order to give the 
effect of this, the Latin half-lines have been retained in the 
translation. Rendered into English the passage reads: 
"Leave hath granted us the author of light, that here we 
might merit, by good deeds gain, joys in heaven ; that so we 
men might reach the greatest kingdom, and sit in exalted 
seats, live in delight of Hght and peace; enter our home of 
blessed happiness, in bliss immortal; see our Saviour, with- 
out ending, merciful and mild; prolong his praises with laud 
everlasting, in bliss with the angels. Alleluia." 

2. SECULAR LYRIC AND ELEGY 
T H E Wande rer 

The elegiac note, so characteristic of Old English poetry, 
finds its most poetic expression in The Wanderer. "Wyrd 
bij) ful araed," all unavoided is the doom of destiny, — this is 
the keynote of the poem. There is only a faint suggestion 
of the Christian hope in the first two lines. Over the body 
of the poem lie the shadows of fataHsm, and a profound 
sense of the instability of the earth and its joys. The 
Wanderer is preserved in the Exeter Book, and probably be- 
longs to the first quarter of the eighth century. For a dis- 
cussion of the critical problems involved, see W. W. Law- 
rence, Journal of Germ-anic Philology, Vol. IV, 1902, pp. 
460-480, and the edition of Old English Lyrics in the Belles 
Lettres Series. 

140. — 20. Hunted by Wyrd. A free rendering of the 
Old English, Wyrd bij) ful arsed, Wyrd shall be fully ac- 
complished. The fact that "Wyrd" and "God's Mercy" are 
mentioned together is nothing unusual (see Gnomic Verses, 
155-14), and there is no need to assume that the introduc- 
tory lines have been worked over by a Christian editor who 



248 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

had before him an earlier pagan poem. — 24. Often alone 

IN THE DARK BEFORE DAWNING. Cf. the NorsC Lay of 

Hamthir: 

"At the sad dawning, . . . 

When day is waxing 

And man's grief awakeneth 

And the sorrow of each one 

The early day quickeneth." 

— Morris' translation. 
141. — 12. Since long time ago my giver of bounty, 
etc. For the other side of the picture, see Widsith. 

142. — 23. The following ten lines in the original text are 
in the manner of the gnomic verses. Their omission from 
the English version does not necessarily imply that the 
translator considers them an interpolation, though their 
counsels of worldly wisdom, prudence, and a safe mediocrity 
certainly form a violent interruption to the uniform elegiac 
mood of the remainder of the poem. If it be objected that 
this is too subjective a test, the answer is that the value of 
a book of selections and representative pieces depends after 
all on the quality of the "subjective taste" with which it is 
made. Where, as in the present case, there is good reason 
to doubt that a poem has been transmitted in its original 
form, the editor and translator, whose aim is literary rather 
than critical and analytic, has a right to exercise the same 
judgment in the elimination of parts of poems that he ex- 
ercises in dealing with the body of Old English poetry. 
The bracketed figures indicating the elision will enable the 
critic easily to check the subjectivity of the translator. It 
should be added that Boer considers the whole passage 
57-87 an interpolation; but in this he is influenced by his 
peculiar theory of the origin of the poem, and its relation 
to the Seafarer. — 31. Dead is their revelry, dust 
are the revellers. This is the far-heard cry of medieval 
poetry : "Ubi sunt qui ante nos in mundo f uere." Cf . Cole- 
ridge's 

"The knights are dust, their good swords rust. 
Their souls are with the saints, we trust." 
where the gray monotone of the Old English elegiac mood 
is overlaid with the colors of romantic medievalism. 



NOTES 249 

143. — 2. Some have gone down in ships on the sea. 
Literally : One did a bird carry off over the deep sea. I have 
followed Thorpe and Wuelker in interpreting ''fugel" as 
*'ship," though I am by no means convinced that the old 
poet may not have had in mind the same picture as Kipling : 

"Yes, the large birds o' prey 
They will carry us away 
An' you'll never see your soldier any more." 

— 13. Where is the warrior, where is the war-horse. 
A thousand years later Thomas Carlyle expresses the same 
mood in almost the same words: *'That warrior on his 
strong war-horse, fire flashes through his eyes ; force dwells 
in his arm and heart: but warrior and war-horse are a 
vision, a revealed force, nothing more. ... A little while 
ago they were not; a little while, and they are not, their 
very ashes are not." (Sartor Resartus). — 15. The dream 
and the gleam that brightened the hall. "There was 
gleam and dream," says the Old English poet, in describing 
the "seledreamas," or joys of the hall. "Dream" in Old 
English meant joy. The modern sense is probably due to 
Scandinavian influence. 

144. — 3. All this earth's foundations utterly shall 
pass. The classic expression of this mood in English lit- 
erature is Shakespeare's: 

"The cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces, 
The solemn temples, the great globe itself, 
Yea, all which it inherit shall dissolve. 
And like this insubstantial pageant faded, 
Leave not a rack behind." — Tempest. 

There follow five lines more in the Exeter Book, comprising 
a few maxims of practical wisdom, and a conventional 
Christian exhortation at the close. 

-^HE Seafarer 

The Seafarer is a poem of 124 lines, of unknown date 
and authorship, preserved in the Exeter Book. It probably 
belongs to the eighth century. The first part, 11. 1-64, de- 
scribes the joys and hardships of the seafaring life, and is 
filled with high poetry. The second part contains practical 



250 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

exhortations, echoed from the gnomic verses, and is full of 
dreary prose. This second part, omitted in the translation, 
is almost certainly a later addition, made by one or more 
monkish scribes. The German scholar Rieger first inter- 
preted the Seafarer as a dialogue between an old sailor and 
a youth eager to go to sea. For the literature on the sub- 
ject, and the divisions suggested by other critics, see W. W. 
Lawrence, Journal of Germanic Philology, 1902, Vol. IV, 
p. 461. The assignment of parts as given in our transla- 
tion differs slightly from that of Rieger. Professor Law- 
rence agrees with Kluge that the latter portion, 11. 64&-124, 
is a pious appendix, but he tries to prove the first part the 
"lyric utterance of one man." It is clear that we have in 
the Seafarer the interplay of different and mutually exclu- 
sive lyric moods, suggested by life at sea. It is also clear 
that the same poet felt and expressed both moods, and that 
one mood is chiefly retrospective, based on experience, and 
the other prospective, based on anticipation. Whether the 
poet consciously dramatized these moods into an objective 
dialogue between an old sailor and a young man is a minor 
question. When a critic (Boer) says he cannot determine 
"whether the dialogue is carried on by two persons or 
whether a single man is talking with himself," we realize 
how perilously near to vain hair-splitting such a discussion 
may carry us. The main point is that the poem is lyric, not 
dramatic; it presents the interplay of lyric moods, and not 
the conflict of dramatic characters. The main, and perhaps 
the only justification for printing the poem in dialogue form 
is that so far from doing violence to its essential meaning 
and poetic values, it rather brings these into relief. For a 
precisely analogous dialogue of moods, compare Walt Whit- 
man's "Give me the Splendid Silent Sun," where the mood 
inspired by life in the country alternates and conflicts with 
that inspired by life in the city. 

Recently Ehrisman (Beitrdge, 1909, Vol. 35, p. 212) has 
argued for a didactic unity of the whole poem. According 
to this interpretation, the pictures of the seafarer's life, with 
their contrasts of joy and sorrow, are introduced merely as 
a symbol of the Christian's life on earth, followed by the 
joys of heaven. It must be admitted that there is much in 



NOTES 251 

Anglo-Saxon Christian poetry to encourage such a view, and 
I have no doubt that the author of the reHgious appendix 
understood the earher sea-poem in this sense, and appro- 
priated it to his symboHc Christian-mystical purposes, but 
this is far from proving the unimaginative, unoriginal, un- 
emotional, homiletic addition to have been part of the origi- 
nal fine sea-piece, and in fact its raison d'etre and final pur- 
pose. Browning's sea-piece Amphibian is a good example 
of a genuine blending of the real and the symbolic-mystical, 
in a uniform poetic key. 

144. — 4. True is the tale, etc. This line has more al- 
literations than the strict rule permits. — 14. Hunger's 
PANGS, etc. Literally "Hunger from within bit to shreds the 
courage of me sea-worried." Cf . Job. xviii : 12, ''His 
strength shall be hunger-bitten." — 16. Little he dreams, 
etc. The translation omits the preceding line and a half, 
where there is an evident break or fault in transcription. 

145. — 19. The tumble and surge of seas tumultuous, 
etc. This and the following line are an expansion of the 
original "hean streamas, sealtyj)a gelac," the high seas, and 
the play of the salt billows. 

146. — 21. Give me the gladness of God's great sea. I 
have frankly taken a liberty with the original text here, and 
the literalist will call my version perversion. Peccavi 
fortiter! At this point the homiletic addition is welded on 
to the genuine poem, and it is done in the following fashion : 
"As for me the joys of the Lord are more pleasing than this 
life-in-death, that passeth away on land." From here on to 
the end, the depth of poetic feeling shoals rapidly, and the 
rhythm breaks. The sympathetic translator who has felt 
the heave and lift of the ground-swell under him thus far 
is tempted to answer the pious homiHst with his "dryhtnes 
dreamas," in Kipling's words: 
"Must we sing forever more 

On the windless glassy floor? 

Take back your golden fiddles, and we'll beat to open sea." 

The Husband's Message 
The somewhat enigmatic character of this poem has given 
rise to various conjectures. Thorpe, the first editor of the 



252 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Exeter Book, recognizing the similarity between the opening 
of the poem and many of the riddles, interpreted the first 
portion (to 1. 13 in the translation), as a separate riddle. 
Later critics perceived that the lines in question refer to the 
tablet of wood on which the husband's message is graven. 
Professor Blackburn (Journal of Germanic Philology, Vol. 
Ill) makes an ingenious hypothesis connecting riddle 61 of 
the Exeter Book with the Husband's Message, and com- 
bines them in his translation under the title A Love Letter. 
Professor Tupper (Riddles of the Exeter Book) shows that 
riddle 61 is a genuine riddle, and that Professor Black- 
burn's arrangement, while "pretty and ingenious," ignores 
the true solution of riddle 61 as a reed or reed-flute. In 
translating the Husband's Message, the original text of 
which is full of gaps, I have been aided by Professor Black- 
burn's version. 

147. — 21. Earnestly urge thee overseas. Old English: 
lustum laeran, J^set J)U lagu drefde. Professor Blackburn 
renders : ''Earnestly to urge thee to sail the sea." The 
next four lines follow Professor Blackburn's version closely. 
The Old English has : 

''siJ)J)an {)u gehyrde on hlij^es oran 
galan geomorne geac on bearwe, 
ne to J}y {)ec siJ^JDan si{)es getwaefan, 
lade gelettan lifgendne monn." 
Literally: "When thou hast heard on the cliff's brow, the 
mournful cuckoo sing in the grove, do not thou then let liv- 
ing man sunder thee from the journey, hinder thee from 
going." 

148. — 18. In the original there follow five more lines, 
containing runes which are supposed to be a cipher or pass- 
word known to the recipient of the letter. 

III. CHARMS, RIDDLES AND GNOMIC VERSES 
The specimens of Old EngHsh verse gathered under this 
head have more points of contact with medieval Latin liter- 
ature, both in form and spirit than any of the poems in our 
collection; and yet, curiously enough, they afford us 
glimpses of the Germanic past, and pictures of the every- 
day life of the Anglo-Saxons, not found elsewhere in Old 



NOTES 253 

English poetry: the ploughman in the field before sunrise, 
and the witch-doctor with his rheumatic patient, repeating 
incantations that remember ancient heathen deities, the 
house-wife kneading her dough, the gathering of the wild- 
honey into vats for the mead-brewing, the fisherman re- 
turning at night to his wife and home (an Old English 
"Meeting at Night"), the mother bending over her babe, 
the student over his book, the gold-smith over his orna- 
ments, the oarsman over his sweep. The stateliness of the 
epic, the raptures of the religious lyric, the melancholy of 
the elegies are here supplemented by the homeliness of 
everyday life, with occasional touches, — in the riddles — of a 
real though coarse humor, rare in Old English poetry. 

I. CHARMS 

The two charms translated in the text are remnants of a 
kind of incantation whose origins must be looked for in the 
pagan past of the Germanic races. They are echoes of the 
solemn chant that anciently accompanied rehgious proces- 
sions, and properly represent the earliest and most primitive 
strata of Old English poetry. In the form in which they 
have been handed down they are much overlaid with Chris- 
tian lore, but it is not difficult to recognize the primitive 
mythologic strata. The Christian church made no attempt 
ruthlessly to eradicate all ancient beliefs and practices. Pope 
Gregory advised the English Christians to consecrate the 
places of pagan ritual to the new religion, but not to destroy 
them ; to respect the ancient forest sanctuaries and sacrifices, 
and to proceed everywhere with restraint and moderation. 
This explains the strange medley of Christian and Pagan 
conceptions so common in Old English literature. 

Cockayne's Leechdoms, Wortcunning and Starcraft of 
Early England (London, 1866) contains an interesting col- 
lection of charms, spells, cures, etc. On the subject of 
Germanic charms consult Gummere's Germanic Origins 
(Scribner's, 1891), pp. 372 ff. and 405 ff., where both of 
our charms are translated in full, and commented on; also 
Felix Grendon, Journal of American Folklore XXII, 105 flf. 



254 ' OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The Ploughman's Charm 
149. — I. Erce Erce. An unexplained term, probably the 
name of an ancient Earth-goddess. We are reminded of a 
famous passage in the Germania of Tacitus (cap. 40) where 
he describes the cult of the Earth-goddess Nerthus, as prac- 
tised by the Ingvaeonic races of the North Sea Coast. "All 
of these people (among them 'AngHi') worship Nerthus, i.e. 
mother earth. They believe that she intervenes in human 
affairs, and visits the people." [In commune Nerthum, id 
est terram matrem colunt, eamque intervenire rebus homi- 
num, et inveni populis arbitrantur.] Like the Norse Freyja, 
she is a kind of Germanic Demeter (Koegel), a goddess of 
earth and mother of vegetation. In the springtime she holds 
her progress, and is welcomed everywhere with eager joy, 
for in the tracks of her chariot drawn by cows, ancient 
symbols of fertility, rich harvests spring up. When she 
has blessed meadow and field, she returns to her under- 
world home beneath the surface of a lonely mere. Cf. Chad- 
wick, Origins, Chap. X, The Cult of Nerthus. — 17. 
Hail to thee, Earth, mother of men. According to 
Tacitus, the Germanic peoples believed mankind to be de- 
scended from Tuisto, whose mother was the earth. In 
Chaucer's Pardoner's Tale, the old man knocks with his 
staff on the ground, "which is my moodres gate" and 
says "Leeve mooder, leet me in," and it is quite possible 
that in the poetic figure there lurks a reminiscence of the 
old pagan notion of the earth mother of men. The next 
lines in the charm are pure pagan, and reveal the same 
conception that underlies the myth of Freyr and Gertha in 
the Icelandic Skirnismal. Freyr the Son of Njord (another 
form of the root found in Nerthus) is the god of the ferti- 
lizing rain, and then of fertility in general. He rides on 
the ship Skidbladnir (the cloud), which he can fold and slip 
into his pocket when his journey is done. His flashing 
sword is the sunshine, that comes after the rain to make 
the world green. His sword he gives to his servant Skirnir 
(the poHsher, burnisher, cleanser), who is to woo for him 
the beautiful daughter of the giants, Gerd (the plant-world, 
released by the sunshine from the fetters of the wintry 
frost-giants). In the last lines the Christian coloring again 
predominates. 



NOTES 255 

Charm for a Sudden Stitch 

The rheumatism to be cured is thought to be caused by 
the darts of the ''mighty women" that ride through the air. 
*'Hexenschuss" (Hagshot), and "Hexenstich" (Hagstitch), 
are still popular names in Germany for rheumatism. It is 
possible that there is in this charm a faint reminiscence of 
the northern myth of the Valkyrias, the shield-maidens of 
Odin, who bring to Valhalla (hall of the slain), the heroes 
that fall in the battle. 

In one of the Eddie songs we read of a band of Valky- 
rias riding through the air and led by a maiden with a 
gleaming gold helmet. "Their chargers tossed their heads; 
from their manes the dew dropped into the deep valleys." 
In an Old High German charm for the release of prisoners, 
three bands of ''august women" are described settling down 
upon earth, and helping the warriors against the foe. With 
the introduction of Christianity, the "august women" and 
the shield-maidens of Odin degenerated into hags and 
witches who send their darts into the vitals of unwary 
mortals. 

"The hag is astride 
This night for to ride 
The devil and she together 
Through thick and through thin 
Now out and now in 
Though ne'er so foul be the weather." — Herrick. 

151. — 16. Shot of Esa, Le. of the gods. The sing. "Os" 
is preserved in proper names, Oswald, Oscar, etc. In Old 
German the root appeared as "ans," preserved in Anselm 
(Ans-helm). The Norse pi. is ^sir. In the Eddas the 
Esir are specialized into war-sprites, while the spirits of 
nature kindly to man, Hke Njord and Freyr, are called 
"Vanir." — 17. Shot of Elves. In the Eddas "Esir ok 
alfar," i.e. gods and elves, are often mentioned together. 
The sing., MM, is preserved in Alfred, i.e. the Elf-coun- 
selled, the Elf-wise, and in Alberich, i.e. the ruler of Elves. 
Originally friendly beings, they have become malicious 
sprites in our charm, together with the ^sir. In Scotland 
flint arrow-heads, relics of an earlier age, are called elf- 



256 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

arrows or elf-bolts, and they are supposed to be hurled not 
only at human beings, but especially at cattle. 
"There every herd by sad experience knows 
How winged with fate their elf-shot arrows fly." 
— Collins, Ode on Highland Superstitions. 

34. Witch fly away. In old German, witches are called 
woodwives, and were supposed to inhabit the wild forest. 
We must not lay too much stress on the echoes of the Val- 
kyria myth in our charm. Even before the introduction of 
Christianity, Germanic folklore had its wicked women and 
wood-wives, who had nothing to do with the shield-maidens 
of Norse mythology. The Norse had their ''svart-alfar," 
black or wicked elves, as well as their "Ijos-alfar," light 
or good elves. "The heathen Teuton saw all round him a 
varied race of demons (especially wood-sprites such as 
O.H.G. haga-sussa, O.E. haegtes, i.e. German hexe, witch, 
and Goth, haljaruna, O.H.G. helleruna, O.E. hellerune) in 
their several haunts, against whose malignant power his 
only resource was zealous devotion to witchcraft." — Kauf- 
MANN, Northern Mythology, Temple Primers, p. 18. See 
note on hell-runes, Beowulf, 6-24. 

In the Havamal, one of the Eddie poems, there is an 
interesting allusion to just such a "spell" as is preserved in 
our charm. The poet says : 

"A spell I can work when witch-women ride 
Speeding swift through the air. 
My runes are strong. I can stop their flight 
Hurry them naked home 
Home with bewildered wits." 

Other charms he claims to know which have the power of 
releasing foot from fetter, hand from haft, and of checking 
an arrow in full flight. 

2. RIDDLES 

In the Exeter Book is preserved a collection of some 
ninety riddles in alliterative verse. These riddles are de- 
scriptions or characterizations of objects, from which the 
object itself, which is not named, must be guessed. When 
"ihe Old English poet, instead of naming the sea, called it 



NOTES 257 

the seal's bath, or instead of naming the ship, called it the 
ocean-stallion, he resorted to a familiar device of Ger- 
manic poetry known as the kenning. Now the Old English 
riddles are in essence expanded kennings: given the char- 
acteristics of an object, to guess what is meant. In the 
larger number of the riddles, the objects are personified and 
describe themselves, and many of them attain a high degree 
of Hterary excellence. Their scope is wide. ''Nothing hu- 
man is deemed too high or low for treatment, and all phases 
of Old English existence are revealed in these poems; so 
that they stand out as the most important contemporary 
contributions to the everyday life of their time." The read- 
ing and guessing of riddles of this kind seems to have been 
a favorite pastime with the Old English, and frequent refer- 
ences to the mead-hall in the riddles themselves make it 
likely that they were recited there along with lay and bal- 
lad. The Old English riddles have their parallels in Latin 
literature. A collection of one hundred Latin riddles, called 
the enigmas of Symphosius, was especially popular in Eng- 
land in the seventh and eighth centuries. Aldhelm (640- 
707), Bishop of Sherborne, imitated Symphosius in a col- 
lection of a hundred riddles in Latin hexameters. A third 
collection of Latin riddles is partly by Tatwine, who be- 
came Archbishop of Canterbury in 731, and partly by one 
Eusebius, of whom nothing is known except that he was 
an English Churchman and composed sixty enigmas, which 
with Tatwine's forty, made up the favorite one hundred of 
the riddle collections. While the riddles of the Exeter Book 
show the influence of these Latin models, they are in no 
sense mere imitations, but are full of fresh and close ob- 
servation of life. 

The English riddles, unlike those in the Latin collections, 
are not supplied with answers, hence their solution has long 
exercised the ingenuity of students of Old English. While 
most of them have been satisfactorily solved, the meaning 
of some is still in doubt. The theory that Cynewulf wrote 
the riddles has been effectually disproved. While no author 
is known, they show the workmanship of a single poet, and 
are not to be viewed as a random collection. For the whole 
subject of Riddle Literature, and the problems raised by the 



258 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

Old English Riddles, see Professor Tupper's excellent in- 
troduction to his edition of the Riddles of The Exeter Book 
(Albion Series, Ginn and Co., 1910). 

The Book-Worm 

151. No 48 of the Exeter Book. Perhaps more accu- 
rately, the Book Moth. The riddle is closely modelled upon 
No. 16 in the collection of Symphosius, which is given for 
comparison : 

"Litera me pavit, nee quid sit litera novi. 
In libris vixi, nee sum studiosior inde. 
Exedi Musas, nee adhuc tamen ipsa profeci." 
The solution of the Latin riddle is given as "Tinea." 

Gnats 

152. No. 58 of the Exeter Book. This riddle has been 
variously interpreted as referring to swallows, or gnats, or 
starlings. The analogies from Latin riddles, quoted by 
Professor Tupper, seem to favor the solution ''swallows." 
In that case we ought to read in 1. 3: 

Dark-coated, dusky-winged, darting about, 
and in the last line 

Gable-roofed towns ! Now tell me their name. 

The Shield 
No. 6 of the Exeter Book. ''Illuminated Anglo-Saxon 
Mss. usually represent the warrior as armed with no other 
defensive weapons than shield and helmet. The shield, cir- 
cular, or slightly oval in shape, is usually of linden-wood, 
sometimes covered with leather, with a metal-bound edge 
and in the center an iron boss, a small basin tapering at the 
top to a point and ending in a knob." — Tupper. 

Barnacle 
No. II of the Exeter Book. This puzzling riddle has 
been responsible for much ingenious guesswork. Among 
the answers suggested are the following: Ocean- furrow, 
Wake of a Vessel, Water-bubble, Anchor, Water-lily! 
Stopford Brooke (£. E. L., p. 179, note) suggests "Barna- 



NOTES 259 

cle-Goose" as the solution. Giraldus Cambrensis, a medie- 
val writer, gives the following description of this mythical 
bird: "Barnacle geese are like marsh-geese, but somewhat 
smaller. They are produced from fir timber tossed along 
the sea, and are at first like gum. Afterwards they hang 
down by their beaks, as if from a seaweed attached to a 
timber, surrounded by shells in order to grow more freely. 
Having thus in process of time been clothed with a strong 
coat of feathers, they either fall into the water, or fly 
freely away into the air." Professor Tupper, in his note 
on the riddle, defends Brooke's interpretation; and the ad- 
ditional evidence adduced by him seems now to me con- 
clusive in favor of the Barnacle-goose. My own interpre- 
tation, made before I had seen his article, I have allowed to 
stand as a suggestion, although it will probably be thought 
to be too fanciful. The "streamers of white," "Hwite 
waeron hyrste mine," were suggested to me by the way in 
which the green seas are churned into wavy lines of white 
foam by the barnacled undersides of a sailing-vessel when 
she heels to the wind. These "streamers of white" can be 
observed wherever the tide sweeps between the barnacled 
pilings of an old dock or bridge. On the other hand, the 
fact that "hyrste" is used of the feathers of the bird in 
the Swan riddle, favors the solution "Barnacle-Goose." 

Honey-Mead 

153. No. 2S of the Exeter Book collection. Professor 
Tupper, in his note to this riddle (p. 132), quotes a number 
of interesting analogues. "Honey was more important to 
the ancients than it is to us, for it constituted the chief in- 
gredient of mead, the time-honored beverage of the Aryan 
peoples." — Sharon Turner (Hist, of the Anglo-Saxons, Bk. 
Vn, Chap. IV) cites an Anglo-Saxon canon against drunk- 
enness : "This is drunkenness, when the state of mind is 
changed, the tongue stammers, the eyes are disturbed, the 
head is giddy, the belly is swelled, and pain follows." (Both 
passages cited by Tupper.) Tacitus, long before, made the 
observation that the people of Germanic stock were ad- 
dicted to the vice of drunkenness. 



26o OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

The Anchor 
154. No. 17 of the Exeter Book collection. This riddle 
has a parallel in the Symphosius collection. 

"Mucro mihi geminus ferro conjungitur unco 
Cum vento luctor, cum gurgite pugno prof undo. 
Scrutor aquas medias, ipsas quoque mordeo terras." 

(A double point is joined to me with hooked iron. With the 
wind I struggle, I battle with the surge profound. I scan 
the midmost waves, and bite the very bottom.) The Old 
English riddle offers a fine example of the way in which 
the poet's imagination vitalizes and dramatizes his object. 
The anchor has become a hero fighting desperately for the 
safety of the vessel committed to his charge. 

The Plough 

No. 22 of the Exeter Book collection. Professor Tupper 
has an interesting note on the ancient plough (p. 113), and 
gives references to pictures of ploughs in old Mss. "The 
illuminated Mss. are at variance regarding the form of the 
plough. In some the ploughs are of the rudest sort without 
wheels; in others they have wheels (so in the pictures of 
the Caedmon Ms.). All these ploughs are drawn by oxen, 
urged by a goad — usually in the hands of an attendant 
herd." — 3. My master the farmer, old foe of the for- 
est. The Old English has simply, "Har holtes feond," hoary 
foe of the forest, which has also been interpreted as refer- 
ring to the ox that draws the plough. — 10. A curious 
PRONG, etc. The coulter and share of the plough. 

The Swan 
155 — No. 8 of the Exeter Book collection. See note on 
the ''music of the swan," Phoenix, 132-32. 

3. GNOMIC VERSES 

Proverbial sayings, maxims of wisdom, reflections based 
on experience, were popular among the Germanic peoples 
from the earliest times, and were handed down in the tra- 
ditional alliterative form. Two compilations of gnomic 
verses are found in the Old English Ms. collections, one in 



NOTES 261 

the Cotton Ms., comprising sixty-six lines, and given entire 
in the translation, the other in the Exeter Book, compris- 
ing two hundred six lines, from which a few extracts are 
given. But this by no means exhausts the store of "gnomic 
verse," in Old English literature. We find both the Epic 
and the Lyric verse of the Anglo-Saxons liberally interlined 
with gnomic sayings, sober moralizing which to our mind 
often interrupt the movement of the narrative or the flow 
of lyric feeling. No doubt the cultivation of literature in 
the monasteries emphasized this preaching tendency ; but it 
would be a mistake to suppose that wherever our taste is 
offended by the intrusion of the gnomic genre, we are deal- 
ing with interpolated matter. In spite of the apparently 
loose and haphazard manner in which the gnomic sayings 
are strung together in our collections, there is a certain unity 
of structure and design. The verses are closely knit to- 
gether by alliteration and ''enjambment," i.e., the running 
over of the sense from one line into the next, unlike, in this 
respect, to the favorite distich or heroic couplet of eigh- 
teenth-century didactic verse. The end of one ''saying" and 
the beginning of the next are generally locked together by 
alliteration, but the alliterative line is rarely a thought unit. 
It is interesting to observe how alliteration is thus made to\ 
assist the memory in linking together a series of apparently I 
disconnected sayings. The need of some such help prob- 
ably explains the large preponderance of "run-on" lines in 
these gnomic collections. Here and there we seem to have 
remnants of an earlier stanzaic form. In their swift pano- 
ramic survey of life, and their delight in a huddled array 
of concrete observation, there is a curious analogy between 
these gnomic verses and some of the poems of Walt Whit- 
man. (Cf. B. C. Williams, Gnomic Poetry in Anglo-Saxon, 
Col. Univ. Press., 1914.) 

156. — 26. Giant shall dwell on the fen. See the de- 
scription of Grendel's haunt, Beozvulf, 11. 1345 ff. (p. 13). 

157. — 8. The wolf shall hang. An outlaw was called 
a wolf. According to a widespread superstition, some men 
had the power of changing themselves into wolves. Such 
a man-wolf or ''wer-wolf" was considered as especially 
dangerous, and as late as the seventeenth century men were 
tried in Europe for being wer-wolves. 



262 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

IV. HISTORIC WAR POEMS 
The Battle of Brunnanburg 

This poem is in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle for the year 
937, and was evidently intended as a piece of historical nar- 
rative. yEthelstan, grandson of Alfred the Great, and 
hereditary ruler of Wessex, had been acknowledged over- 
lord of Mercians, Danes of Northumbria, Britons of Strath- 
clyde, and Scots. But in 937 a conspiracy against him was 
formed by Constantinus, king of the Scots, who joined with 
the Danes and Strathclyde Britons. The Norsemen of Ire- 
land, under Anlaf or Olaf, aided their Northumbrian kins- 
men, bringing their army over by sea from Dublin. The 
allies were defeated by Athelstan and his brother at Brun- 
nanburg with great slaughter. The site of Brunnanburg is 
unknown. Among several places mentioned, the most likely 
seems to be Bramber, near Preston in Lancashire, south of 
the Ribble. A great hoard of silver ingots and coins, none 
later than 930, was discovered near this place in 1847, and 
it has been suggested that this may have been the war-chest 
of the confederate army. (C. Hardwick, Lancashire Bat- 
tlefields, quoted by Sedgefield in his introduction to the 
poem in the Belles Lettres Series.) Tennyson's fine version 
of the Battle of Brunnanburg, based on his son Hallam's 
prose translation, and the rhythms of the original, is well 
known, and is precious to all lovers of English poetry, as 
representing the effect which the old alliterative measure 
produced on the finest ear of the Victorian period. But 
Tennyson followed the prevailing custom of his day is con- 
sidering the half-line of two beats, rather than the long 
line of four beats bound together by alliteration, as the 
metrical unit of the verse. As a result, Tennyson's version 
breaks up the alliterative scheme of Old English verse, and 
in so far fails to give the movement of the original. No 
one could undertake another version of Brunnanburg with- 
out showing the influence of Tennyson. Whereaver I have 
been conscious of it, I have indicated it in the notes. The 
only reason for venturing on a new version of The Battle 
of Brunnanburg was to make it uniform in rhythm and 
alliterative plan with the other renderings of this series. 

162.— 5. Edmund tEtheling. Three sons of Edward 



NOTES 263 

the Elder reigned in succession : ^thelstan, 925-940 ; Ed- 
mund, 940-946; Eadred, 946-955. — 7. Broke the shield- 
wall, HEWED THE LINDEN WOODS. So Teunyson. The origi- 
nal has "bordweall clufon, heowan heaJ)olinda," clove the 
shield- walls, hewed the battle-lindens. — 11. True to their 
BLOOD. The blood of Alfred the Great. Gardiner says of 
Eadred, the youngest of ^thelstan's brothers, "though 
sickly, he had all the spirit of his race." — 12. Their hoard 
AND their home. Tenuysou, "struck for their hoards and 
their hearths and their homes." The Old English has 
"Hord and hamas," hearth and homes. — 13. Boat-crews. 
The regular name for the Danish invaders in the Chronicle 
is "sciphere," i.e. ship-army. — 17. Came in the morning- 
tide gliding o'er earth. Tennyson, "From when first the 
great sun-star of morning-tide . . . glode over earth." Old 
English, "Sij)l)an sunne up on morgentid, glad ofer grun- 
das." "Till the glorious creature sank to its setting." So 
Tennyson. Old EngHsh, "0\) Jiset seo sel^ele gesceaft, sah 
to setle"; literally, "till the glorious creature, sank to set- 
ting." — 21. Shot over shield. Old English, "ofer scyld 
sceoten." 

163. — 4. Who came with Anlaf across the water. 
I.e. from Dublin. Anlaf is the English form of Olaf. 
"There seem to have been two Olafs present at this 
battle: Anlaf Cuaran, son of Sihtric, ^thelstan's brother- 
in-law, and Anlaf, son of Godfrey, Sihtric's brother." — 6. 
The Mercians formed part of the West-Saxon army. Ed- 
ward the Elder had added the midland districts as far north 
as Chester in the West and the Humber in the East, to the 
West-Saxon dominion. His sister ^thelflsed, who aided 
him in making his conquest, was known as the Lady of the 
Mercians. — 7. Hand-play. Old English, "handplegan." — 
14. On the fallow flood. Old English, "on fealone 
flod." — 15. The cunning Constantinus. Tennyson, 
"Also the crafty one, Constantinus." Old EngHsh, "se 
frode," the wise old man. 

164. — I. Dublin to seek. Dublin was the chief set- 
tlement of the Northmen in Ireland, and had been founded 
by the Viking leader Turgeis about 839 A.D. — 164. — 10. 
The haggard kite. Literally, the greedy hawk-of-war. 



264 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

It is possible that this is merely a descriptive epithet or 
kenning for the eagle. In that case we should translate : 

"Leaving behind the white-tailed eagle 
(Perched on the corpses), to prey on the carrion, 
Greedy war-hawk, and the gray beast. 
Wolf of the forest to feast on the slain." 

Cf . Kipling's "Birds of Prey" March : 

"The jackal an' the Kite 
'Ave an 'ealthy appetite 
An' you'll never see your soldier any more. 
The eagle and the crow 
They are waitin' ever so 
An' you'll never see your soldier any more." 

The Battle of Maldon 

The fight commemorated in this poem took place in the 
year 991, and is thus described in the Anglo-Saxon Chron- 
icle: "In this year came Anlaf with ninety-three ships Jo 
Stan (Folkstone), and laid waste the country round about, 
and from there he went to Sandwich, and so on to Ipswich, 
and harried all the country. And then he came to Maldon, 
where the ealdorman Byrhtnoth with his force came to 
meet him and fought against him. And they slew the eal- 
dorman there, and were masters of the field of battle, and 
afterwards peace was made with them." The famous Olaf 
Trygvasson, celebrated in Longfellow's Saga of King Olaf, 
was the Norse leader. The site of the battle is described 
by Freeman (Norman Conquest, Vol. I, p. 268) : "The 
fight of Maldon is the only battle of the days of ^thelred, 
of which any minute details are preserved, and every de- 
tail throws light on something in the manners or military 
tactics of the age. The battle took place near the town of 
Maldon (in Essex), on the banks of the tidal river Panta, 
now called the Blackwater. The town lies on a hill; im- 
mediately at its base flows one branch of the river, while 
another, still crossed by a medieval bridge, flows at a little 
distance to the north. The Danish ships seem to have lain 
in the branch nearest to the town, and their crews must 
have occupied the space between the two streams, while 



NOTES 265 

Brithtnoth came to the rescue from the north. He seems 
to have halted at the spot now occupied by the church of 
Heybridge, having both streams between him and the town." 

Byrhtnoth, alderman or ruler of Essex, under King 
^thelred the Redeless, had been a benefactor of the mon- 
astery of Ely, situated not far from the scene of the bat- 
tle. In a Latin chronicle of Ely, containing a somewhat 
legendary account of the fight, we are told that the Ab- 
bot, "hearing of the issue of the battle, went to the field with 
some monks, and seeking out the hero's body bore it back 
to the church and buried it honourably, placing a round 
lump of wax where the head had been." 

The author of our poem was in all probability one of the 
monks of Ely. He was either an eye-witness of the battle, 
or heard the details from one of the survivors. Though the 
beginning and the end of the poem were missing in the 
original Ms., there is no doubt that in the portion preserved, 
and fortunately copied before the destruction of the Ms. 
by fire in 1731, we have practically the poem in its entirety, 
and it is therefore misleading to speak of the Battle of 
Maldon as a fragment, in the sense in which The Fight at 
Finnshitrg, and Waldere, or even Judith, are fragments. 

For additional details see the introduction to W. J. Sedge- 
field's edition of the poem in the Belles Lettres Series (D. 
C. Heath and Co., 1904), H. W. Lumsden's article and 
spirited translation of the poem in Macmillan's Magazine, 
55, p. 371, and Freeman's Norman Conquest, cited above. 

165. — 4. Showed them how they should hold their 
SHIELDS. "The fighting men of the fyrd or militia had but 
imperfect ideas of military discipline, and needed the per- 
sonal instruction of their general even as to the proper hold- 
ing and use of their arms" (Sedgefield). — 7. Leaped 
FROM his steed. Freeman points out that battles were 
fought on foot in England before the Conquest, though 
horses were used to get to and from the battlefield. How- 
ever, the ornamented saddle given by Hrothgar to Beowulf 
is called the "Battle-seat" of the king.— 8. His hearth 
BAND, etc. His own retainers, or comitatus, who lived in 
his own hall, and were of his own household. Cf. Ger- 
mania, Chap. 7; "non casus neque fortuita conglobatio tur- 



266 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

mam aut cuneum facit, sed familiae et propinquitates." — 
14. Send them tribute. yEthelred the Redeless inaugu- 
rated the bad custom of buying off the Danes who were 
about to make raids. Money so paid was called Danegeld, 
i.e. Dane Money. 

166. — 14. The breadth of the stream. Below Mal- 
don, the Blackwater opens into a sea-inlet, where a strong 
tide runs. 

167. — I. On the bridge. The bridge probably crossed 
only the deep channel, where the tide ran strong. The flats 
on either side would be bare or nearly bare at low tide, 
giving access to the bridge, but at high tide they would be 
covered. — 4. Kept the approach, etc. Literally, "would 
not make a flight of it at the ford." With Sedgefield I 
understand the "ford" to mean the shallow flats between 
either terminus of the bridge and the mainland. A ford is 
a place where "the crossing is shallow." The spirited fight 
on the bridge reminds us of Macaulay's ballad of Horatius. 
— 14. Byrhthelm's son. I.e. Byrhtnoth. — West over 
Panta. — We should expect here "north over Panta," as 
from 1. 26 p. 168 it appears that the Vikings were south 
of the English. If the main channel bent to the north at 
the point of crossing, the Northmen charging from the 
southern bank would be heading northwest, which the 
exigencies of alliteration might easily make west. — 22. 
Lindenwood. a common kenning for shield. Cf. Charm 
for a Sudden Stitch, p. 2, 1. 5, and Brunnanburg, p. 82, 1. 6. 

168. — 7. Son of his sister. This tie of relationship was 
considered in Germanic antiquity as more intimate and bind- 
ing than that of "brother's son."— 12. The thane, etc. 
Literally, "bower-thane." The "bower" is the private sleep- 
ing apartment, as distinguished from the hall. When Beo- 
wulf fought Grendel in the hall, the Danes heard the noise 
in the "bowers." "Bower-thane" is therefore equivalent to 
the later chamberlain.— 28. He shoved with his shield. 
I.e. he caught the dart-point in his shield, but the shaft snap- 
ping short, splintered and wounded him. This seems to 
me a more, reasonable interpretation than Sedgefield's. In 
the Njals Saga is a similar situation, when "Gunnar gave 
the shield a twist as the sword pierced it, and broke it 
short off at the hilt" (Chap. 30). 



NOTES 267 

169. — 10. Now ONE OF THE PIRATES, etc. With this 
passage, describing the death of Byrhtnoth, should be com- 
pared the killing of Douglas in the ballad of Chevy Chase. 
When Byrhtnoth, mortally wounded, no longer can grasp 
his sword, he still keeps encouraging his men. So when 
Earl Douglas is stricken in at the breast-bane, he cried: 

"Fight ye, my merry men, whiles ye may, 
For my life-days be gane." 

— 24. Broad and Blood-marked. Literally, brown-edged, 
— one of the conventional epithets for swords in Anglo- 
Saxon poetry and in the ballads. **Broad and brown-edged" 
is the sword of Grendel's dam in Beowulf. The epithets 
may refer to the rusty blood-stains purposely left on the 
sword-blade as marks of ancient valor and faithful service. 
Old English poetry is peculiarly sparing of color-epithets. 
Brown, gray, fallow, dun, are the only colors that appear 
frequently. Even in the ideal landscape of the Phoenix, and 
in the description of the bird's gorgeous plumage, the colors 
are suggested rather than described. — 30. The hoar- 
headed warrior. Probably more than a mere conventional 
epithet. In the Life of Oswald, Archbishop of York, writ- 
ten not long after the battle of Maldon, Byrthnoth's end is 
thus described : ''With his right arm he dealt blow on blow, 
unmindful of the swan-like whiteness of his head. . . . 
With his left arm he defended himself, forgetting his 
bodily weakness, for his prayers and good deeds sustained 
him." The prayer of Byrhtnoth breathes the atmosphere 
of the monastery, rather than of the battlefield, and seems 
out of keeping with the warlike temper of the rest of the 
poem. The Chevy Chase poet knew better: 

"For'*\Vitherington my heart was sore 
That ever he slain should be. 
For when both his legs were hewn in two 
Yet he kneeled and fought on his knee." 

170. — 10. The fiends of hell. It is not necessary to 
understand this of the Norsemen, though the epithet is one 
that the author would be likely enough to apply to the 
heathen Danes, whom the English monks had good reason 
to hate, and whom they may very well have regarded as "in 



268 OLD ENGLISH POETRY 

direct league with the devil," as Sedgefield suggests. It 
would be more in keeping with the spirit of the poem i 
Byrhtnoth, like Beowulf, had thought of the fate of hi: 
people, rather than of his own soul, at this juncture. 

171. — 2. ^thelred's earl. I.e. earl of King iEthelred 
the West-Saxon ruler 968-1016. — 11. Remember the time 
etc. Cf. Beowulf's last fight, and the speech of Wiglaf. 

172. — 20. Leaderless, lordless, etc. "A valuable sur 
vival of this taunting of men who broke the oath of loyalt} 
is the cry of the sworn-brother in Bewick and Graham: 
"In every town that I ride through 
They'll say — 'There rides a brotherless man.' " 

(Gummere.) 

173. — 2. ^scferth. He appears to have been an Eng- 
lishman held by the Danes as a hostage. Managing to 
escape, he joined his own people against the enemy. — 31. 
He lay by his lord, a loyal thane. Professor Gummere 
{Old English Epic, p. 136) quotes an interesting passage 
from Saxo Grammuticus, illustrating the loyalty of thanes 
to their lord. Hialto says : "Sweet it is to repay the gifts 
received from our lord ... let us do with brave hearts all 
the things that in our cups we boasted ... let us keep the 
vows we swore." And Bjarki answers: "I will die over- 
powered near the head of my slain captain, and at his feet 
thou also shalt slip on thy face in death, so that whoso scans 
the piled corpses may see in what wise we rate the gold our 
lord gave us." Saxo's Latin prose, by his own account, is 
based on an old Danish song. 

174. — 4. WiSTAN. He is called Thurstan's son, but in the 
next line he is referred to as "Wigeline's beam," i.e. the 
child of Wigelin. There seems to be some confusion here. 
— 174. — 18. Heart must be keener. These words of 
Byrhtwold contain the essence of old Germanic heroism: 
fearless valor and a loyalty that keeps faith to the end and 
prefers death to dishonor. 

"Men and houses 

Stand long enough if they stand 

Until they fall with honor." 



THE END 



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